1 


ifornia 

mal 

ty 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


'LETTER' 


ON 


THE    UNITED    PROVINCES 


OF 


>out&  America, 


ADDRESSED   TO   THE 


HON.  HENRY  CLAY, 

SPEAKER   OE   THE   HOUSE   OF  REPRESENTATIVES  OF   THE  17.   STATES. 

BY 

DO&  VICENTE  PAZOS. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  SPANISH 

BY 

PLATT  II.  CROSBY,  ESQ. 
NEW-YORK: 

PRINTED  BY  J.  SEYMOUR,  49  JOHN-STREET. 

LONDON: 

BY  J.  MILLER,  BOW-STREET,  COVENT  GARDRN". 


1SI9. 

7614    6       650S6 


Bi 


Foiilhtrn  District  of  Nen-lotk,  it. 


>E  it  remembered,  thai  on  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  March,  in  the  43d  year  of  the 
Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  PLATT  H    CROSBY,  of  the  said  Dis- 
trict, hath  deposited  in  thin  office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  he  rliirw  a?  Pro- 
prietor, in  the.  words  following,  to  wit: — 
"  LetttH  on  the  United  Provinces  of  South  America,  addressed  to  the  Hon  Henry  Clay, 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representative  of  the  United  States,  by  Don  Vicente  VmC%, 
translated  from  the  Spanish,  hy  Piatt  H.  Crosby.  Esq." 
In  conformity  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  State',  entitled  '*  An  Act  for 
the  encouragement  of.Learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps.  Charts,  and  Books  to  the 
authors  an-J  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  lime  therein  mentioned  :"    And  also 
to  an  Act.  entitled    "  An  Act,  supplementary  to  an   Act,  entitled  an  Act  for  the  encou- 
ragement of  Learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts,  and  Book<  to  the  authors 
and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned,  and  extending  the 
benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engra\ing,  and  etching  historic*,  md  other  prints." 

JAMES  DUJi. 
Clerk  (if  the  Southern  District  of  If  em-  York 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Don  Vicente  Pazos,  the  author  of  the  following 
Letters,  is  a  native  of  Upper  Peru :  much  there- 
fore, of  what  he  describes,  is  the  familiar  recollec- 
tions of  his  childhood,  or  the  results  of  his  maturer 
knowledge,  and  of  personal  observation. 

In  his  rapid  sketch  of  the  revolution  of  the  Unit- 
ed Provinces  of  South  America,  there  are  many 
scenes  in  which  he  has  borne  a  part,  either  as  an 
actor  or  sufferer,  and  which  are  therefore  too 
deeply  imprinted  on  his  memory  to  be  easily  for- 
gotten ; — for  the  rest,  for  every  fact  which  is  not 
already  history,  he  relies  upon  authentic  informa- 
tion, and  public  documents. 

I  learn  from  him,  that  he  >vas  induced  to  address 
these  letters  to  the  Hon.  Henry  Clay,  from  senti- 
ments of  private  friendship,  of  respect  for  his  pub- 
lic character  as  the  chief  of  the  popular  and  re- 
presentative branch  of  the  government  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  and  because  he  was  the  first  to  raise 
his  voice  in  our  national  Legislature  in  favour  of 
South  American  Independence. 

The  Map  of  the  United  Provinces  of  South 
America,  which  accompanies  this  volume,  was  de- 
lineated by  the  ingenious  Mr.  E.  W.  Bridges,  City 
Surveyor,  and  engraved  by  those  distinguished 
artists,  Messrs.  Maverick  and  Durand.  It  is  com- 
piled from  the  most  recent  and  approved  maps 


iv  ADVERTISEMENT. 

and  charts  of  South  America,  whose  errors,  where 
they  have  been  discovered,  have  been  carefully 
corrected,  and  whose  omissions  have  been  suppli- 
ed from  the  author's  topographical  knowledge  of 
the  country. 

For  the  manner  in  which  this  work  has  been 
translated,  I  am  answerable ;  it  hns  not  been  ac- 
complished without  much  labour,  nor  without  the 
waste  of  many  hours,  taken  from  business  or  relaxa- 
tion;— in  the  progress  of  which  I  have  been  cheer- 
ed, by  the  reflection  that  I  was  aiding  to  dissemi- 
nate among  my  fellow-citizens,  the  knowledge  of 
a  country,  the  most  interesting,  perhaps,  of  any 
on  the  globe,  but  which,  like  the  Herculaneum  of 
antiquity,  has  been  buried  for  centuries  beneath 
the  accumulated  lavas  of  oppression,  ignorance 
and  superstition. 

The  following  pages  point  out  to  the  enterpris- 
ing a  boundless  scope  for  the  employment  of  in- 
dustry, and  the  display  of  talent ;  to  commercial 
men,  new  objects  and  channels  of  trade ;  to  the 
friend  of  man,  a  noble  field  for  the  exercise  of 
benevolence;  to  the  friend  of  God,  a  splendid  the- 
atre for  the  labours  of  the  Missionary ; — a  region 
where  the  fountain  of  living  waters  has  never 
gushed,  nor  the  tree  of  life  taken  root. 

I  flatter  myself  that  whoever  shall  peruse  this 
volume,  will  lay  it  down  with  the  conviction,  that 
his  time  has  been  employed,  neither  unpleasantly 
nor  un  profitably. 

PLATT  H.  CROSBY. 

New-York,  March  20,  1819. 


PREFACE. 


THE  struggles  which  the  Patriots  of  South 
America  are  making  to  establish  their  inde- 
pendence, have  attracted  the  attention,  and 
deeply  interested  the  sympathies,  of  the  world. 
Until  very  lately,  the  abundant  resources  of 
this  country,  and  its  unparalleled  salubrity  of 
climate,  have  been  regarded,  without  being  en- 
tirely disbelieved,  as  the  fables  of  romance, 
rather  than  realities.  Few  had  any  interest 
in  the  truth,  and  fewer  still  had  the  disposi- 
tion to  investigate  it.  Investigation  would  in- 
deed have  been  unprofitable,  and  at  all  events 
laborious,  and  without  the  prospect  of  future 
advantage ;  and  the  fairest  portion  of  the 
globe,  the  most  inviting  to  the  adventurer,  and 
the  man  of  science  ;  the  most  auspicious  to  the 
developement  of  genius,  and  the  prosecution 
of  industry  ;  has  been  known  only  through  the 
muddy  channels  of  information  which  the 
worst  of  governments,  and  of  religions,  have 
from  time  to  time  thrown  open  to  the  world. 

b 


vl  PREFACE. 

A  happier  star  seems  to  have  risen  upon  this 
oppressed  country,  to  preside  over  its  desti- 
nies, and  to  conduct  the  people  in  their  march 
towards  moral  greatness ;  to  attain  which,  no- 
thing but  the  incarceration  of  the  mind  could 
have  repressed  their  ardour,  or  stilled  their 
aspirations.     The  glorious  work  of  political 
and  religious  emancipation  is  going  on  simul- 
taneously with  the  removal  of  ignorance,  ap- 
athy, and  prejudice, — obstacles  formidable  in- 
deed, but  which  the  spirit  of  independence 
will  finally  overcome.    The  termination  of  the 
contest  now  waging,  in  Peru  especially,  may 
be  anticipated  at  an  early  day ;  its  triumph- 
ant issue  is  so  clearly  foreseen,  that  anxiety 
is  barely  kept  awake,  and  hope  not  permitted 
to  slumber.     The  strong  arm  of  power  cannot 
subdue  the  energies  of  a  high-minded  people, 
when  roused  in  the  cause  of  their  indepen- 
dence, and  directed  to  the  overthrow  of  an 
odious  and  humiliating  domination.     Defeat 
may  damp  the  ardour  of  resistance,  and  smo- 
ther the  flame  which  it  cannot  extinguish ; 
but  passions,  which  have  long  been  restrained, 
will  sooner  or  later  burst  their  barriers,  and 
bear  down  every  thing  in  their  fury. 

The  independence  of  the  whole  of  the  Unit- 
ed Provinces,  except  those  of  Upper  Peru, 
has  been  so  long  established,  and  the  ability 


PREFACE.  vil 

and  determination  of  the  people  to  maintain 
it,  have  been  so  fully  displayed,  that  incredu- 
lity is  hushed,  and  doubt  has  vanished  away. 
They  exercise  all  the  rights  of  sovereignty, 
and  possess  all  its  advantages,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  their  recognition  by  other  nations. 
This  policy  of  the  European  governments, 
however  it  may  have  originated,  has  been  pur- 
sued by  the  United  States  ; — with  what  wisdom 
will  not  here  be  made  the  subject  of  inquiry, 
as  it  would  lead  into  the  mazes  of  politics, 
further  than  is  either  prudent  or  desirable,  and 
it  is  a  subject  of  all  others,  perhaps,  upon 
which  the  writer  would  be  heard  with  the  least 
complacency.  Without  exposing  himself  to 
the  hazards  which  overhang  that  troubled 
ocean,  he  may  be  indulged  in  a  few  remarks. 
The  present  embarrassed,  it  might  be  said  dis- 
tracted, state  of  commerce  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  affords  strong  grounds  for  be- 
lieving, that  former  sources  of  trade  are  in  a 
degree  becoming  exhausted  ;  and  in  a  state  of 
profound  peace,  like  the  present,  when  na- 
tions are  permitted  to  pursue  their  interests 
and  policy  undisturbed,  competition  alone  will 
bear  heavily  upon  commercial  profits.  In 
such  a  state  of  things,  some  nations  must 
change  their  habits  and  policy,  or  search  out 
new   channels,   and  pursue  new   objects  of 


viii  PkEFACE. 

trade.  But  it  is  no  easy  thing  to  convert  the 
whole  commercial  capital  of  a  nation  into  ag- 
ricultural and  manufacturing  channels,  or,  in- 
deed, to  make  any  other  general  appropria- 
tion of  it ;  and  it  is  no  ordinary  transforma- 
tion, to  change  the  character,  and  the  habits 
of  thinking  and  acting,  of  a  large  and  wealthy 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  country.  The 
pursuit  of  new  objects  of  trade,  whenever  they 
can  be  discovered,  is  the  easiest  and  safest  way 
to  counteract  commercial  torpor,  and  re-ani- 
mate declining  trade.  New  branches  of  trade, 
besides  benefitting  the  world  at  large,  have 
invariably  stimulated  the  enterprise,  and 
quickened  the  industry  of  those  countries 
which  have  embraced  them.  Viewed  in  these 
lights,  the  emancipation  of  South  America  is 
of  the  first  importance  to  the  commercial 
world,  but  particularly  to  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States*' 

The  Banda  Oriental,  Entre  Rios,  and  Par- 
aguay ;— all  that  portion  of  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, situated  on  the  east  of  the  river  La 
Plata,  with  the  exception  of  the  city  of  Monte- 
Video,— are  in  the  hands  of  the  Patriots.  This 
place  in  its  turn  must  yield  before  the  arms  of 
that  brave  and  indefatigable  commander, 
General  Artigas ;  and  when  that  event  shall 
happen,  which  cannot  be  long  delayed,  the 


PREFACE.  ft 

whole  of  the  trade  of  the  La  Plata,  and  its 
numberless  tributary  streams,  will  be  opened 
to  the  world. 

The  independence  of  Chili  has  been  for 
some  time  established,  and  the  Spanish  autho- 
rities are  now  subverted  in  every  part  of  that 
country.  The  prospects  of  that  brave  people 
are  far  brighter  than  were  those  which  ani- 
mated the  hopes,  and  strengthened  the  zeal 
of  their  Atlantic  neighbours.  Buenos  Ayres 
had  to  contend  single-handed  ;  Chili  was  not 
only  encouraged  by  her  example,  but  aided 
by  her  troops,  who  were  disciplined,  and 
inured  to  the  fatigues  and  privations  of  war. 
Chili  is  better  protected  from  hostile  attack, 
and  may,  with  greater  certainty,  calculate 
upon  maintaining  her  present  stand. 

Peru  possesses,  in  common  with  Chili,  ma- 
ny advantages  over  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  at 
present  subjected  to  the  Spanish  government, 
but  the  day  cannot  be  far  distant,  when,  aided 
by  the  victorious  arms  of  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Chili,  it  will  achieve  its  independence.  The 
resources  of  this  country  are  so  abundant,  that 
a  long  continued  war  there,  would  be  produc- 
tive of  no  other  waste  than  that  of  human 
blood. 

The  power  of  Spain  in  South  America. 
totters  to  its  foundation;  and,  as  it  grows  more 


I  PREFACE. 

feeble,  the  number  and  the  zeal  of  its  enemies 
will  increase.  The  Spanish  cabinet  is  aware 
of  the  situation  of  the  revolted  Provinces,  and 
that  an  important  crisis  is  at  hand.  The  Unit- 
ed Provinces  are  pledged,  before  the  world, 
to  make  peace  with  Spain,  if  she  will  acknow- 
ledge their  independence.  Commissioners 
have  been  sent  to  Europe  to  open  negotia- 
tions upon  this  subject,  and  it  has  even  been 
proposed  to  the  Spanish  court,  through  the 
interposition  of  Great  Britain,  to  receive  one 
of  the  royal  family  as  Sovereign  of  South 
America.  This  act  of  humanity,  to  stop  the 
effusion  of  blood,  was  treated  with  contempt 
by  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  even  regarded  as 
a  "  high  insult  to  his  Catholic  Majesty,"  who. 
instead  of  acceding  to  a  proposition  so  mag- 
nanimous on  the  part  of  the  colonies,  and  so 
beneficial  to  himself,  has  drawn  his  sword  to 
maintain  his  imaginary  sovereignty,  as  King 
of  the  Indies ;  a  title  which  can  only  be  com- 
pared to  that  of  King  of  Jerusalem,  and 
u  which  hangs  as  loose  about  him,  as  a  giant's 
robe  upon  a  dwarfish  thief." 

What  now  remains  for  the  colonies  to  do, 
in  order  to  ensure  their  own  safety,  and  pre- 
serve those  sacred  rights,  which  the  God  of 
nature  has  implanted  in  every  breast?— What, 
but  to  conquer  peace  with  the  sword;  to  carry 


PREFACE.  xi 

the  war  to  the  last  extremity,  regardless  of 
the  blood  and  treasure  it  may  cost,  until  not 
a  vestige  of  the  Spanish  government  shall  re- 
main.     Of  the  absurdity  of  the  efforts  of  ty- 
rants to  keep  a  nation  of  brave  men  in  perpe- 
tual slavery,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak;  and 
equally  absurd  is  it,  to  suppose  that  men  who 
have  unsheathed  their  swords  against  their 
Sovereign,  will  return,  after  ten  years  of  revo- 
lution and  bloody  war,  to  the  abject  condition 
of  colonies.     Every  day  strengthens  and  em- 
boldens the  patriots,  and  brings  tidings  of  their 
progressive  success.  Their  resentment  against 
their  oppressors  burns  stronger  and  stronger 
as  they  approach,  in  imagination,  the  object  of 
their  desires  ;  and  the  Spanish  monarchy  will 
probably  never  be  so  weak  as  at  the  present 
time,  both  in  the  old  world,  and  in  the  new. 
It  stands  like  a  blasted  oak  upon  the  barren 
heath,  whose  branches  are  dropping  off,  one 
after  another,  and  whose  decayed  and  sapless 
trunk  will  be  prostrated  to  the  dust,  by  the 
first  rude  blast  of  popular  fury. 


LETTERS,  a 


FART  I. 


LETTER  I. 

TO  THE  HONOURABLE  HENRY  CLAY,  Sic.  Sic 
Sir, 

A  HE  Republic  of  the  United  Provinces  of  South 
America  comprehends,  with  some  exceptions,  the 
same  territory  as  the  Vice-Royalty  of  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  which  was  established  in  1778.  It  ex- 
tends from  the  16th  to  the  45th  degree  of  south 
latitude ;  from  the  left  margin  of  the  Lake  Titica- 
ca,  which  lies  between  the  two  Cordilleras  of  Pe- 
ru, on  the  north,  to  the  coast  of  Patagonia,  on  the 
south.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  vice-roy- 
alty of  Peru,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  coast  of  Atacama  at  the  23d  de- 
gree of  south  latitude,  and  from  Chili  by  the 
mountains  of  the  Andes ;  and  on  the  east  and 
north,  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  dominions  of 
Brazil,  the  establishments  of  the  missions  of  Para- 
guay, Chiquitos,  and  the  independent  Indians  of 

R 


JO 

the  river  Amazon  and  its  borders:  The  whole 
forming  an  extent  of  territory  which  stretches 
through  twenty-nine  degrees  of  latitude,  embra- 
cing almost  every  variety  of  climate,  productions, 
and  people ;  and  rising  towards  the  west  into  an 
elevated  soil  and  lofty  mountains,  whose  bases  ex- 
tend into  immense  plains,  which  terminate  on  the 
Atlantic  Ocean. 

This  region  is  divided  principally  into  Upper 
Peru  and  Rio  de  la  Plata,  properly  so  called, 
which  commences  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  at 
Jujui,  under  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  ;  the  former 
comprehending  the  Provinces  of  Potosi,  Charcas 
or  La  Plata,  Cochabamba,  La  Paz,  Santa  Cruz  de 
la  Sierra  or  Puno,  Moxos,  and  Chiquitos ;  and  the 
latter,  Buenos  Ayres,  Banda  Oriental,  Entre  Rios, 
Corrientes,  Paraguay,  Cordova,  Mendoza  or  Cuyo. 
Salta,  and  Tucuman. 

The  Provinces  of  Banda  Oriental,  Corrientes, 
Entre  Rios,  and  Paraguay,  which  lie  on  the  east 
and  north  of  the  river  La  Plata,  are  not  included 
in  the  Union,  and  of  these,  together  with  the  other 
provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  I  shall  speak  more 
particularly  in  a  subsequent  part  of  these  letters. 

Before  entering  upon  the  moral  and  physical 
history  of  this  country,  it  may  be  interesting  briefly 
to  notice  the  political  convulsions  which  have 
taken  place  there,  and  the  spirit  which  prevailed 
among  the  people  previous  to  1810,  the  era  of  the 
present  revolution. 

The  cruelties  inflicted  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment upon  the  people  of  South  America,  whenever 


11 

they  have  manifested  a  spirit  of  independence  and 
reform  in  the  administration,  afford  the  clearest 
evidence  that  there  has  always  existed  in  their 
hearts  an  unextinguishable  love  of  liberty  and  po- 
litical independence.  At  different  epochs  in  their 
history,  although  buried  in  ignorance,  and  for  the 
most  part  tranquil  under  the  pressure  of  despotism, 
there  have  been  exhibited  those  violent  convul- 
sions, which,  while  they  redoubled  the  vigilance 
of  the  Spanish  government,  at  the  same  time  gave 
warning,  that  sooner  or  later  an  explosion  would 
burst  forth  and  spread  desolation  and  death  among 
the  tyrants  of  South  America. 

The  history  of  this  people  contains  facts,  which, 
notwithstanding  they  are  involved  in  some  obscu- 
rity, teach  us  the  important  and  interesting  truth, 
that  mankind  are  ever  disposed  to  meliorate  their 
condition,  and  that  tyranny  has  for  ever  strove  to 
stifle  the  voice  of  reason,  which,  pervading  all  ages 
and  climes  with  firm  though  tardy  steps,  will  finally 
establish  her  throne  on  its  ruins.  It  is  an  historical 
fact,  that  in  the  year  1725,  in  a  remote  and  distant 
corner  of  the  civilized  world,  and  in  the  colony  of 
a  government  as  despotic  perhaps  as  any  that  ever 
existed  in  Europe,  the  true  and  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  free  government  were  understood  and 
publicly  proclaimed ;  1  mean  in  Paraguay.  In  this 
secluded  part  of  South  America,  which  had  no 
communication  with  any  of  the  free  and  enlighten- 
ed nations  of  the  world,  a  government  was  esta- 
blished, which  was  founded  upon  a  representation 
of  the  people,  and  recognized  as  the  basis  of  its 


12 

institutions,  the  republican  principle,  that  all  power 
emanates  from  the  people.  A  phenomenon  in  poli- 
tics this,  which  has  escaped  the  knowledge  of 
historians  and  philosophers,  but  which  has  happily 
come  to  light  in  our  own  times,  in  spite  of  the  efforts 
of  tyranny  to  conceal  it. 

The  Province  of  Paraguay,  by  reason  of  its  local 
situation,  the  establishments  of  the  Jesuits  within 
its  territory,  and  the  turbulence  of  which  they 
were  the  cause ;  the  suspicious,  crafty,  and  inde- 
pendent genius  of  the  natives — forms  a  separate 
and  distinct  branch  of  the  history  of  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  and  I  shall  notice  it  no  further  at  present 
than  it  has  an  immediate  connexion  with  my  sub- 
ject. 

The  principal  historian  of  this  country,  Charle- 
voix, was  a  Jesuit,  and  consequently  partial  to  that 
religious  order  which  was  composed  of  his  com- 
panions and  brothers.  He  was  inspired  with  all 
that  intolerant  and  exclusive  spirit  which  so 
strongly  characterized  that  sect ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore natural  enough  that  he  should  present  in  hig 
history  an  unfavourable  picture  of  the  enemies  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  represent  them  as  the  enemies  of 
the  public  tranquillity,  and  as  rebels.  It  is  not 
therefore  surprising  that  Antequera  should  appear 
in  his  history  as  unworthy  of  the  rank  which  he 
held  in  public  opinion  in  South  America ;  nor  that 
he  should  express  himself  with  so  much  bitterness 
against  Antequera  and  the  Comuneros,  or  repre- 
sentatives of  Paraguay,  if  we  consider  that  he 
wrote  at  a  period  when  there  was  nobody  to  con- 


13 

tradict  or  expose  him,  and  under  the  powerful 
protection  of  the  Spanish  court,  which  would  have 
punished  with  the  greatest  severity,  all  who  dared 
to  justify  their  conduct:  but  it  certainly  is  sur- 
prising that  Dean  Funes,  who  wrote  nearly  a  cen- 
tury after  Charlevoix,  in  an  age  of  light  and  liber- 
ty, should  follow,  without  criticism  and  with  so 
much  apparent  servility,  every  thing  which  he 
found  in  the  writings  of  this  Jesuit.  This  circum- 
stance can  only  be  attributed  to  that  veneration 
which  he  no  doubt  retains  in  his  old  age  for  the 
Jesuits,  in  whose  college  at  Cordova  he  was  edu- 
cated, and  to  those  monkish  habits  and  predilec- 
tions which  he  there  acquired, — a  melancholy 
proof,  indeed,  of  the  force  of  habit  upon  the  in- 
dependence and  integrity  of  the  human  mind ! 

To  avoid  the  errors  of  these  writers,  it  is  ne- 
cessary, in  relating  the  history  of  Antequera,  and  of 
the  revolution  of  which  he  was  the  leader,  to  refer 
to  public  transactions  at  Lima,  and  to  authentic 
documents  in  the  possession  of  his  connexions 
there,  upon  whom  the  Spanish  government,  as  a 
recompense  in  some  measure  for  the  injustice 
done  to  their  illustrious  relative,  has  conferred 
honourable  employments,  and  besides,  ordered 
the  expenses  of  the  prosecution  of  Antequera  to 
be  refunded  to  them  out  of  the  estates  of  the 
Viceroy  Castlefuerte,  under  whose  administration 
he  was  put  to  death.  (1) 

Don  Jose  Antequera  was  a  native  of  Lima,  knight 
of  Alcantara,  and  Attorney-General  or  Protector 
of  the  Indians  in  the  Audience  of  Charcas.    He 


14 

was  one  of  those  extraordinary  men,  who,  like 
Franklin,  become  illustrious,  not  so  much  by  the 
cultivated  embellishments  of  education,  as  the 
force  of  native  talent;  he  possessed  a  noble  soul, 
and  was  enthusiastically  devoted  to  the  liberty 
and  happiness  of  mankind. 

The  Jesuits  in  Paraguay,  at  the  period  of  which 
I  speak,  had  erected  there  an  extraordinary  spe- 
cies of  government,  without  a  parallel  in  history  ; 
keeping  in  continual  commotion  the  whole  pro- 
vince, insomuch  that  it  was  found  necessary  to 
send  there  a  minister  of  integrity  and  approved 
talent,  commissioned  from  the  Audience  of  Char- 
cas,  to  watch  the  movements  of  these  men,  who, 
under  the  cloak  of  their  monkish  superstition,  had 
transformed  themselves  into  sovereigns.  Ante- 
quera  was  dispatched  as  this  commissioner,  and 
he  found  the  Jesuits  already  holding  in  subjection 
a  great  population,  masters  of  their  wealth  and 
industry,  and  busily  engaged  in  hastening  on  a 
plan  of  universal  domination ;  and  that  the  small 
part  of  the  inhabitants  which  resisted,  was  but  a 
feeble  check  upon  the  ambition  of  these  monks. 
He  saw  that  the  disturbances  existing  between 
the  magistrates  and  the  corporate  bodies  of  the 
country,  were  the  result  of  their  policy,  and  that, 
in  order  to  quiet  these  disturbances,  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  put  an  end  at  once  to  the  alarming 
evil. 

The  Jesuits,  who  were  perhaps  the  most  intelli- 
gent body  of  men  in  all  the  Spanish  dominions, 
and  perfectly  conversant  with  the  policy  of  the 


15 

Spanish  cabinet,  saw  in  Antequera  a  terrible 
enemy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  destroy  him. 
All  the  artifices  of  intrigue  and  cunning  which 
their  refined  and  practised  ingenuity  could  sug- 
gest, were  put  in  motion  and  exerted  with  the 
utmost  adroitness  to  conduct  Antequera  to  the 
scaffold,  where  he  soon  expiated  with  his  life  his 
desire  of  reforming  these  rapacious  monks. 

These  disciples  of  Loyola,  being  possessed  of  the 
confessionals,  and  by  this  means  of  the  most  secret 
thoughts  of  the  people,  and  availing  themselves  of 
their  pretended  divine  authority,  it  is  easy  to 
conceive  that  nothing  could  be  concealed  from 
them,  and  that  no  scheme  could  be  projected 
among  the  people  which  they  could  not  turn  to 
their  advantage.  And  here  1  cannot  but  remark 
that  a  system  of  religion  which  obliges  its  profes- 
sors to  act  as  self-accusers,  and  to  regard  the  doc- 
trines and  counsels  of  their  priests  as  oracles  of 
Heaven,  is,  without  doubt,  the  most  potent  engine 
of  despotism  which  has  ever  been  devised.  This 
moral  power,  superior  in  itself  to  the  armies  of 
kings,  was  of  unimaginable  force  when  wielded  by 
the  Jesuits.  Their  interior  discipline,  the  auste- 
rity of  their  habits  in  the  midst  of  a  corrupt  and 
profligate  priesthood,  the  sanctity  of  their  manners 
and  their  learning,  all  conspired  to  give  them  great 
consideration  among  the  people,  who  committed 
to  them  not  only  the  keeping  of  their  consciences, 
but  the  education  of  their  children,  the  direction 
of  all  their  private  and  domestic  business,  their 
testimentary  dispositions,  matrimonial  contracts, 


16 

&c.  The  indefatigable  perseverance  with  which 
they  pursued  their  schemes,  is  undoubtedly  wor- 
thy of  commendation ;  they  omitted  nothing  which 
could  tend  to  instruct  them  in  a  knowledge  of  the 
character  of  the  people  of  South  America,  while 
they  practised  every  winning  art  to  captivate  the 
hearts  of  the  neophytes ;  and  what  ought  to  have 
been  a  work  of  sublime  charity,  was  in  their  hands 
converted  to  the  purposes  of  gain — as  they  ap- 
propriated to  themselves  the  labour  of  these  un- 
happy men,  and  treated  them  as  their  slaves. 

From  the  period  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  and 
even  now,  since  the  present  revolution,  the  most 
serious  difficulty  in  the  way  of  civilizing  the  In- 
dians of  this  country,  has  arisen  from  ignorance  of 
their  languages.  This  difficulty,  which  is  indeed 
considerable  where  there  are  no  writers  nor  inter- 
preters of  a  language,  was  completely  surmounted 
by  the  ingenuity  of  the  Jesuits,  who  composed 
dictionaries  and  grammars  of  the  native  languages 
of  Peru  and  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

The  Jesuits  permitted  none  but  themselves  to 
hold  any  intercourse  with  the  Indians,  or  even  to 
enter  their  villages ;  and  the  corps  of  militia  and 
regulars  composed  of  the  Indians,  who  are  good 
soldiers,  were  under  the  immediate  command  of 
the  friars,  who  always  accompanied  them  in  their 
wars. 

Antequera  saw  that  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits 
was  too  powerful  for  him  to  attempt  a  reform ; 
that  their  power  and  political  connexions  were 
established  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 


the  Spanish  government  itself,  which  afterwards 
found  it  necessary  to  expel  them  from  its  domi- 
nions, was  at  this  time  the  supporter  of  this  soci- 
ety, whose  object  was  the  universal  subjugation 
of  all  South  America.  These  military  Priests,  who 
held  under  their  control  in  their  villages,  troops 
well  disciplined  and  regulated,  by  their  superior 
sagacity  and  skill,  and  who  in  one  week  could 
have  marshalled  60,000  men  in  the  field,  could 
have  made  an  easy  conquest  of  Peru,  if  not,  in- 
deed, of  the  whole  of  South  America;  and  had 
not  their  ambitious  projects  been  thwarted  by 
their  expulsion  from  the  country,  we  should  at 
this  hour  behold  existing  there  a  monkish  monar- 
chy or  republic,  as  novel  in  the  world  as  it  would 
have  been  destructive  to  the  peace  and  happiness 
of  mankind.  This  supposition  will  not  seem  im- 
probable, if  we  consider  the  means  which  were 
in  their  hands,  the  ambition  inherent  in  the  hu- 
man heart,  their  immense  wealth,  disciplined 
troops,  munitious  of  war,  manufactures,  aud  all 
the  talents  suited  to  military  command,  and 
to  the  direction  of  public  affairs.  (2)  Even  at 
this  time  there  exist  in  the  villages  of  the  Mis- 
sions and  Chiquitos,  manufactories  of  fine  linen 
and  cabinet  work,  and  specimens  of  sculpture 
and  painting  executed  in  a  beautiful  manner; 
in  short,  these  Jesuits  were  masters  of  immense 
possessions,  of  splendid  houses,  magnificent  tem- 
ples, and  altars  adorned  with  the  most  rich  and 
sumptuous  stuffs,  which  were  fabricated  by  the 
Indians  of  Juli  and  the   Missions,  and  with  the 

G 


18 

same  taste  and  beauty  as  the  workmanship  of  the 
first  rate  mechanics  of  Europe. 

The  art  of  printing,  too, — that  inestimable  in- 
vention, to  which  mankind  are  so  much  indebted 
for  their  grand  progress  in  civilization  and  liberty, 
and  which  will  make  perpetual  that  mass  of  know- 
ledge which  has  been  accumulated  through  the 
lapse  of  ages,  — which  was  prohibited  in  all  the 
Spanish  provinces,  under  the  severest  penalties, 
Was  introduced  by  these  monks  into  their  esta- 
blishments, and  preserved  by  them  for  their  own 
private  use. 

Those  who  are  born  and  educated  in  countries 
where  printing  is  like  any  other  mechanic  art, 
can  have  no  idea  of  the  sensations  which  a  Span- 
ish colonist  feels  at  the  first  sight  of  a  printing- 
press.  For  myself,  although  educated  in  the  prin- 
cipal college  of  Peru,  I  never  beheld  a  printing- 
press  uuiil  my  arrival  at  Buenos  Ayres,  about  nine 
years  ago.  Animated  with  the  view  of  the  admi- 
rable invention,  I  fancied  I  beheld  in  those  mute 
characters,  the  types,  the  fountain  of  that  light, 
which  ere  long  would  burst  forth  and  dissipate 
the  clouds  of  despotism  which  darkened  the  hori- 
zon of  my  beloved  country.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  at  the  breaking  out  of  the  present  re- 
volution in  1810,  Iron  Lima  to  Monte  Video,  for 
an  extent  of  more  than  1000  leagues,  including 
Peru,  Chili,  and  Rio  de  la  Plata,  countries  filled 
with  cities,  villages,  universities,  colleges,  schools, 
tribunals  of  justice,  and  men  of  wealth  and  sci- 
ence, there  was  but  one  miserable  old  printing- 


19 

press,  and  this  formerly  belonged  to  the  Jesuits  of 
Cordova! 

The  Jesuits  well  knew  the  utility  of  the  press, 
and  surmounted  every  difficulty  in  order  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  it,  and  there  are  now  to  be 
found  in  the  imperial  library  at  Paris,  dictionaries 
and  grammars  of  the  languages  of  Peru  and  the 
Missions,  which  were  printed  at  Cordova  and  at 
Juli,  a  village  near  La  Paz.  In  those  grammars 
may  be  seen  the  formation  of  the  general  langua- 
ges of  Peru,  called  Quechua  and  Aymara,  which 
follow  the  construction  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages,  having  similar  declensions  and  termi- 
nations, and  which  are  sufficiently  copious  for  a 
people  partially  civilized.  (3) 


2U 


LETTER  II. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  Province  of  Para- 
guay was  divided  into  factions  of  the  people  and 
the  Jesuits,  and  that  the  latter  had  clearly  the  su- 
periority. In  this  state  of  things,  Antequera  saw 
that  the  only  way  to  check  the  usurpations  of  the 
monks,  was  to  unite  with  the  people,  who  un- 
doubtedly possessed  the  right  to  form  their  own 
municipal  laws,  and  to  live  independent  of  the 
Jesuits.  He  found  a  ready  disposition  in  the  inha- 
bitants to  second  him  in  his  plans ;  he  instructed 
them  in  the  natural  rights  of  a  people  whose  rulers 
have  become  corrupt  and  profligate,  and  that,  un- 
der such  circumstances,  they  had  a  right  to  choose 
their  own  rulers ;  and  thereupon  the  people  pro- 
ceeded to  establish  a  representative  government. 
This  bold  measure  alarmed  the  Spanish  chiefs ; 
and  the  Viceroy  of  Lima,  notwithstanding  he  was 
a  friar,  manifested  all  the  indignation  of  a  Casti- 
lian.  He  instantly  assembled  his  troops  to  chas- 
tise the  rebels.  The  Jesuits  sent  their  troops  to  co- 
operate with  those  of  the  Viceroy.  The  Comuneros, 
or  representatives  of  the  people,  with  Antequera 
at  their  head,  took  up  arms  to  defend  their  rights, 
and  several  bloody  battles  were  fought,  which 
were  attended  with  various  success;  but  at  length 
the  royal  troops  were  victorious.  Antequera  be- 
ing defeated,  retired  to  Cordova,  where  he  Mas 
arrested,  and  from  whence  he  was  conveyed  to 
Lima  and  imprisoned,   with  his   companions,  D. 


21 

Ramon  Lianas,  D.  Juan  de  Mena,  and  Mompo. 
The  imprisonment  of  these  persons,  who  were  re- 
garded as  the  leaders  of  the  revolution,  did  not 
quiet  the  disturbances  in  Paraguay,  but  the  spirit 
of  independence  spread  there  with  renewed  vi- 
gour. Beroa,  the  governor  of  that  province,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Viceroy,  was  deposed  as  being  an 
accomplice  of  Antequera,  to  whom  the  success  of 
the  revolution  in  Paraguay  was  attributed,  al- 
though he  was  at  that  time  imprisoned  in  Lima,  a 
distance  of  800  leagues. 

Nearly  five  years  had  elapsed  since  Antequera 
was  imprisoned  in  Lima,  where  his  transcendent 
talents,  his  eloquence,  the  inherent  consideration 
of  his  rank  and  birth,  and  the  integrity  of  his 
morals,  drew  around  him  hosts  of  friends,  in-v 
somuch,  that  it  was  generally  believed  at  Lima, 
that  he  would  finally  be  set  at  liberty.  And 
notwithstanding  this  long  delay  was  dangerous  to 
the  Spanish  government,  still  the  force  of  public 
opinion  in  favour  of  Antequera  operated  as  a 
check  upon  their  proceedings  against  him,  until 
the  escape  of  Mompo  from  prison  hastened  the 
conclusion  of  the  trial,  and  the  execution  of  the 
sentence. 

This  Mompo,  who  was  a  man  of  a  daring  and 
enterprising  spirit,  escaping  from  prison  in  Lima, 
of  a  sudden  presented  himself  in  Paraguay,  where, 
obtaining  a  situation  in  the  municipality,  he  had 
an  opportunity  to  diffuse  his  idefis  of  liberty 
among  the  people,  and  of  which  he  availed  him- 
self with  great  success.  The  news  of  these  pro- 
ceedings   of   Mompo    exceedingly    alarmed  th«» 


22 

Spanish  government,  and  it  was  deemed  expedi- 
ent to  put  Antequera  and  his  companions  to  death, 
notwithstanding  the  difficulties  which  might  arise 
from  the  execution  of  a  man  and  his  adherents,  who 
were  the  favourites  of  the  whole  population  of  Lima. 
The  viceroy,  Castelfuerte,  who  was  a  bold  and  faith- 
ful servant  of  his  king,  ordered,  that  the  5th  of 
July,  1731,  should  be  appointed  for  the  public 
execution  of  Antequera,  and  that  it  should  take 
place  with  all  the  preparation  and  ceremony 
customary  on  the  execution  of  Spanish  noble- 
men. 

Never  was  Lima  seen  in.  so  great  consterna- 
tion. Multitudes  of  people  thronged  the  streets, 
running  in  every  direction  to  save  their  beloved 
Antequera,  and  when  he  was  brought  forth  to  be  led 
to  execution,  the  air  rang  with  the  cries  of 'pardon' 
from  the  people.  Then  the  Viceroy,  seeing  that 
the  sentence  would  not  be  executed,  mounted  his 
horse,  and  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  upon  the 
crowds  who  were  rushing  to  rescue  the  prisoner. 
Antequera  was  thus  shot  down  by  the  soldiery  in 
the  street,  and  at  the  same  time  great  numbers  of 
the  populace,  who  were  crowding  around  him. 
Thus  ended  the  sad  catastrophe,  and  although  the 
vigilence  of  the  viceroy  could  quiet  the  agitation  of 
the  populace,  it  could  not  quench  the  fire  of  inde- 
pendence which  had  been  lighted  up  in  Paraguay, 
where  the  news  of  this  transaction  inflamed  the 
passions  of  the  people  the  more,  and  the  Comune- 
ros  canonized  those  illustrious  victims  as  the 
*  Martyrs  of  Liberty ;"  and  here  I  cannot  pass 


23 

over  in  silence  the  superiority  of  character  dis- 
played by  the  daughter  of  Don  Juan  de  Mena. 
This  young  lady  in  the  morning  heard  of  the  death 
of  her  father,  and  far  from  showing  the  sensibility 
common  to  her  sex,  immediately  adorning  herself 
in  the  gayest  apparel,  presented  herself  to  the 
public,  saying,  "  that  it  would  be  degrading  to  her 
to  show  any  symptom  of  sorrow  or  affliction  on 
hearing  of  her  father's  death,  because  it  was  glo- 
rious for  him  to  die,  when  he  was  sacrificed  in  the 
cause  of  the  liberty  of  his  country."  Such  was 
the  language  which  was  used  at  that  time  in  a  re- 
mote corner  of  South  America,  at  a  distance  from 
the  civilized  nations  of  Europe,  by  a  people  unac- 
quainted with  the  writings  of  those  illustrious  men 
whose  labours  are  the  experience  of  centuries. 

After  the  revolution  of  Paraguay,  we  hear  of  no 
other  political  commotion,  until  the  rebellion  of 
Tupac  Amaru,  in  Cuzco,  the  ancient  metropolis  of 
the  Incas,  in  the  years  1700,  81.  While  excry  step 
of  the  Spaniards  in  America  has  been  marked  with 
blood,  the  city  of  Cuzco  has  been  undoubtedly  the 
principal  theatre  where  have  been  acted  the  deep- 
est tragedies  of  their  cruelty  and  injustice.  In  this 
devoted  city,  Pizarro  and  his  bloody  banditti,  in 
the  most  cruel  and  treacherous  manner,  murdered 
the  unfortunate  Atahualpa,  a  monarch  most  belov- 
ed by  his  people,  in  return  for  the  hospitality 
and  wealth  which  he  had  showered  upon  them, 
and  thus  destroyed  the  only  government  then  ex- 
isting in  the  world,  which  was  founded  upon  the 
will,  and  consulted  the  happiness  of  the  people  in  its 


24 

administrations  (4).  There,  the  most  magnificent 
monuments,  which  were  a  proof  of  the  power  and 
resources  of  those  who  erected  them,  and  of  the 
ingenuity  of  the  artists,  were  delivered  to  plun- 
der and  desolation  by  those  stupid  and  brutal 
conquerors,  who  were  as  deaf  to  the  voice  of 
reason  as  of  humanity.  There,  at  last,  in  our  own 
times,  was  put  to  death  in  a  most  barbarous  man- 
ner, Jose  Gabriel  Tupac  Amaru,  illustrious  by  his 
descent  from  the  Inca  Sayri  Tupac,  but  more  il- 
lustrious, because  he  was  the  first  who  rose  up  to 
deliver  jPeru  from  the  calamities  inflicted  by  the 
Spanish  despotism.  This  valiant  leader  was 
drawn  in  quarters  by  horses ;  he  died  like  a  hero, 
leaving  to  posterity  an  example  which  will  never 
be  forgotten.  Tortured  by  Areche  in  order  to 
force  him  to  disclose  the  names  of  his  accompli- 
ces, he  answered — "  Two  only  are  my  accompli- 
ces, myself,  and  you,  who  interrogate  me ;  you,  in 
continuing  your  robberies  upon  the  people,  and 
I,  in  endeavouring  to  prevent  you."  A  short  sen- 
tence, which  defines  the  nature  of  the  Spanish 
government.  This  answer,  inspired  by  the  deep 
feelings  caused  by  the  injustice  of  the  Spanish 
government,  was  punished  by  cutting  out  his 
tongue,  drawing  his  body  asunder  by  horses,  and 
burning  to  ashes  the  mutilated  fragments !  Seve- 
ral others,  among  whom  were  the  wife  and  chil- 
dren of  Tupac  Amaru,  were  put  to  death  in  the 
most  shocking  and  brutal  manner.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  that  in  that  revolution,  one  third  at  least  of 
the  whole  population  of  Peru  perished  by  the 


25 

hand  of  violence,  and  there  were  to  be  seen  on 
the  plains  of  Cica-Cica,  and  Calamarca,  which  1 
passed  over  about  twenty  years  after,  for  an  ex- 
tent of  fourteen  leagues,  numberless  heaps  of 
bones  of  the  miserable  beings  who  had  fallen 
there  by  the  sword ;  and  there  still  remained  to 
be  seen,  at  the  cross  roads,  and  in  the  most  pub- 
lic places  throughout  the  country,  the  heads  of  the 
leaders  of  that  rebellion  suspended  on  gibbets  (4). 

We  have  seen  how  prodigally  the  blood  of 
the  natives  of  this  country  has  been  shed  to  sustain 
a  government  which  was  odious  to  them :  it  now 
only  remains  to  show  that  the  Spanish  government 
has  pursued  an  uniform  and  constant  plan  to  punish 
their  insurgent  colonists  in  South  America.  The 
same  cruelties  practised  by  the  Spaniards  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest,  were  repeated  three  centu- 
ries afterwards.  The  murder  of  Tupac  Amaru, 
of  his  family  and  associates,  in  the  years  1780,  81, 
in  Cuzco,  La  Paz,  Verenguela,  and  Penas; — that 
of  Ubalde  and  his  eight  companions  also  in  Cuzco 
in  1806; — of  the  two  Llanzas,  Sagarnagas,  &c.  in 
La  Paz  in  1809,  are  testimonials  of  the  cruel  and 
unrelenting  spirit  of  the  Spanish  government ;  and 
that  the  wounds  inflicted  by  their  barbarous  policy 
can  never  be  healed,  nor  the  disposition  of  the 
inhabitants  conciliated. 

The  disorders  and  corruption  of  the  reigns  of 
Charles  111  and  IV,  have  produced  in  South  Ameri- 
ca results  equally  unhappy,  and  deplorable. 

Ubalde  was  a  native  of  Arica,  the  Asesor  or 
chief  lawyer  of  the  presidency  of  Cuzco,  and  a  man 

1) 


20 

of  acknowledged  talents  and  independent  charac- 
ter, who  could  not  accommodate  himself  to  that  un- 
equal and  unjust  system  of  government  which  mark- 
ed the  reign  of  Charles  IV,  and  more  particularly 
during  the  administration  of  the  Prince  of  Peace. 
His  influence  in  the  government  of  his  country,  forc- 
ed upon  him  the  conviction  that  it  was  impossible  to 
produce  any  political  reformation  which  would  be 
either  stable  or  salutary;  and  in  conjunction  with 
the  principal  men  throughout  Upper  Peru,  and  in- 
cluding Cuzco  and  Arequipa,  he  projected  a  revo- 
lution, the  object  of  which  was  to  produce  the  entire 
overthrow  of  the  Spanish  government  in  that  part 
of  South  America ;  and  all  the  means  necessary 
for  the  accomplishment  of  the  project,  were  pro- 
vided, so   that  the  thing  might  take  place  at  one 
time  throughout  the  whole  country ;  by  seizing  at 
once  all  the  different  branches  of  the  public  ad- 
ministration, and  establishing  a  central  representa- 
tive government  of  the  people,  which  might  awaken 
them  to  a  sense  of  their  rights.     This  project  was 
defeated  by  the  perfidy  of  a  wretch  who  basely 
betrayed  the  cause   of  his  country,  and  put  the 
Spanish  government  in  possession  of  the  secret,  in 
hopes   of  reward.      The  name  of  this  man  was 
Lechuga,  which  ought  to  be  handed  down  to  the 
execration  of  posterity.   The  mode  of  discovering 
the  plot  is   worthy  of  mention : — This  Lechuga 
requested  one  of  the  principal  judges  of  the  Au- 
dience of  Cuzco  to  come  to  his  house  with  a  No- 
tary, on  a  particular  day,  and  that  he  would  feiga 
sickness  and  send  for  Ubalde,  and  that  the  judge 


27 

should   hear   the    plan    of  the   conspiracy   from 
Ubalde's  own  lips ;    the    thing  happened  in  the 
manner  he  projected.     Ubalde,  in  consequence 
of  the  indisposition,  as  he  supposed,  of  Lechuga, 
went  to  visit  him,   who  said   that  his  indisposi- 
tion proceeded  from  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of 
the  revolution,  and  his  anxiety  of  mind,  and  fears 
of  the  danger  of  ultimate  failure  on  account  of  the 
extent  of  the  power  and  resources  of  the  Spanish 
government ;  that  he  was  fearful  the  scheme  would 
have  the  same  melancholy  issue  as  that  of  Tupac 
Amaru  and  his  companions  in  the  same  city,  whose 
names  were  only  remembered  with  infamy,  and 
whose  blood  still  reddened  the  scaffolds   upon 
which  it  was  shed ;  these  melancholy  reflections 
had  made  so  deep  an  impression  on  his  mind, 
that  he  had  resolved  to  have  nothing  more  to 
do  with  a  project  so  fruitful  of  difficulties  and 
dangers.     Ubalde   replied,    that    the    undertak- 
ing would  no  doubt  meet   with  very  great  op- 
position,  but  that  he  had  provided  against  every 
casualty  within  the  limits  of  human  foresight;  that 
the  leaders  in  every  city  were  wealthy  and  influen- 
tial men ;  that  the  natives  would  immediately  unite 
with  them  all  over  the  country,  as  soon  as  the  lead- 
ers set  them  a  proper  example,  and  more  especially 
would  the  confidence  of  the  people  increase  when 
they  should  discover  that  the  first  act  of  the  revolu- 
tion would  be  to  give  them  a  share  and  part  in  the 
government;  that,  as  the  revolution  would  be  effect- 
ed by  one  simultaneous  effort  throughout  the  whole 
country,  and  by  those  already  holding  situations  in 


28 

"the  government,  the  opposition  of  the  Spanish  au» 
thorities  would  necessarily  be  feeble,  and  that,  even 
supposing  it  should  be  strong,  there  could  certain- 
ly be  no  apprehension  of  ultimate  failure,  as  the  re- 
volutionists were  possessed  of  all  the  means  ne- 
cessary to  make  war  to  advantage ;  were  masters  of 
all  the  public  and  private  treasures  of  the  coun- 
try, the  munitions  of  war,  military  posts,  &c.  and 
would,  of  course,-  be  able  in  a  short  time  to  or- 
ganise and  put  in  motion  a  regular  and  formida- 
ble military  force ;  and  that,  although  at  present 
they  might  stand  in  need  of  military  commanders, 
the  Spaniards  were  certainly  not  in  a  better  situa- 
tion ;  that  the  revolutionists  possessed  greater  fa- 
cilities for  acquiring  the  means  of  carrying  on 
war  by  opening  their  ports  to  foreigners,  and 
inviting  all  nations  to  unite  with  them  in  libe- 
rating their  country  from  oppression,  and  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  riches  of  the  soil  and  in  their 
commerce;  that  the  North  Americans  and  the 
English  who  frequent  the  Pacific  Ocean,  would 
introduce  their  merchandise  into  the  country  in 
spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the  Viceroy,  and  that  find- 
ing a  good  market  and  hospitable  treatment  among 
them,  they  would  supply  them  with  every  article 
of  use  or  necessity. 

The  judge  heard  with  alarm  this  disclosure 
of  a  conspiracy,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
overthrow  the  Spanish  government  in  South 
America.  He  directed  the  notary  to  take  down 
the  substance  of  that  conversation.  In  cases 
of  treason  under  the  Spanish  law,  this  summary 


2ft 

information  is  sufficient  to  subject  the  party  impli- 
cated to  capital  punishment.  Ubalde  and  his  eight 
companions  were  in  a  short  time  sentenced  to  death, 
and  upwards  of  one  hundred  of  the  principal  citi- 
zens of  Cuzco  were  banished  to  Africa,  the  Phi- 
lippines, and  the  Peninsula,  and  thrown  into  pri- 
son there,  where  they  perished. 

Ubalde,  whose  execution  I  witnessed,  was  hung 
in  August,  1805.  He  died  with  the  serenity  of  a 
philosopher,  without  denying  his  principles,  or 
the  causes  which  led  him  to  engage  in  the  revo- 
lution ;  but  on  the  contrary,  while  seated  on  the 
scaffold,  he  said,  "  that  his  death  could  not  stop 
the  progress  of  a  cause  which  had  been  so  long 
preparing  by  the  corruption  of  the  government; 
that  the  independence  of  South  America  was  not 
far  distant,  and  that,  although  he  was  going  to  the 
grave  without  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  that  glo- 
rious day,  yet  his  mind  was  brightened  with  the 
hope,  that  his  friends  who  survived  him  would 
enrol  his  name  among  the  martyred  heroes  of  hia 
country ;  that  Providence  had  decreed  that  a 
period  should  be  put  to  the  sufferings  of  the  peo- 
ple of  South  America,  the  extent  and  magnitude 
of  which  he  well  knew  from  the  situations  which 
he  had  held  in  the  public  administration;  that, 
although  he  should  soon  cease  to  be,  and  should 
leave  behind  him  a  wife  and  children  exposed  to 
the  ignominy  and  disgrace  which  always  attach  to 
a  rebel  family,  he  felt  a  consolation  in  the  reflec- 
tion that  he  should  die  in  the  same  place  where 


30 

the  most  illustrious  Americans  had  died  before 
him."  This  address,  pronounced  by  a  man  like 
Ubalde,  so  beloved  as  he  was  in  Cuzco,  drew 
tears  from  every  eye,  and  a  universal  cry  from 
the  people  accompanied  the  last  groan  of  that 
unhappy  American. 


31 


LETTER  III. 

Events  proved  that  Ubalde  knew  the  real  state 
of  the  country,  as  five  years  did  not  pass  away 
after  his  execution,  before  a  new  revolution  broke 
out  in  La  Paz,  which  may  be  considered  the  pre- 
cursor of  that  which  exploded  in  the  capital  (Bue- 
nos Ayres)  in  1810;  a  city  which  first  effectually 
broke  the  colonial  chains  upon  the  heads  of  her  op- 
pressors, and  established  the  foundations  of  poli- 
tical independence  in  the  South. 

The  political  events  which  transpired  at  Bay- 
onne  in  May,  1808,  created  in  the  inhabitants  of 
La  Paz  a  new  excitement  to  arouse  them  from 
their  lethargy.  It  was  in  vain  to  pretend  that  the 
population  of  this  country,  possessing  immense 
resources,  which  they  well  knew  how  to  appre- 
ciate, would  remain  in  the  same  apathy  which  the 
people  of  South  America  manifested  when  Philip 
V.  disputed  the  crown  of  Spain.  Independent  and 
warlike  in  their  character,  they  beheld  a  great 
monarchy,  celebrated  for  three  centuries  for  its 
riches,  power,  and  the  extent  of  its  dominions,  dis- 
solved in  a  moment ;  and  it  was  on  the  25th  of 
March,  1809,  that  they  deposed  the  Spanish  au- 
thorities in  the  country,  held  meetings  of  the  peo- 
ple, erected  a  government  under  the  name  of  Junta 
Tuitiva,  and  published  a  manifesto  to  the  world, 
in  which  they  asserted  the  right  of  governing 
themselves  in  the  same  manner  as  Spain  did  b) 
her  Juntas:  and  more  especially,  as  at  fhaf  tirr.r 


32 

insidious  recommendations  of  the  pretensions  of 
the  Princess  Charlotte  of  Brazil  were  sent  into  the 
country,  in  order  to  persuade  the  people  to  re- 
ceive her  in  the  character  of  Protectress. 

The  people  of  La  Paz  organised  all  the  depart- 
ments of  the  public  administration,  and  raised  an 
army  to  oppose  the   Spanish  authorities,  who   at 
the  same   time  rose   up  to  destroy  the  unhappy 
city.     La  Paz  not  only  separated  itself  from  the 
government  of  the  mother  country,  but  Monte  Vi- 
deo also ;  and  both  established  a  Junta,  but  their 
fate  has  been  very  different.     The  leaders  of  the 
revolution  in  Monte  Video  were  European  Span- 
iards, and  this  was  sufficient  to  ensure  the  appro- 
bation and  countenance  of  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment ;   while  on  the  contrary,  the  leaders  of  La 
Paz  were  natives,  and  therefore  were  marked  as 
traitors,  and  devoted  to  destruction.     An  armed 
force  was  despatched   by  Cisneros,  Viceroy    of 
Buenos   Ayres,  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Nieto,  which  was  to  form  a  junction   with  other 
troops  which  were  despatched  by  the  Viceroy  of 
Lima,  and  commanded  by  Goyeneche.     This  as- 
sassin of  his  country — for  he  was  a  native  of  Peru — 
had  the  glory,  if  it  may  be  called  such,  of  entering 
La  Paz  before  the  arrival  of  Nieto.     r\  he  unhappy 
city,  after  a  stout  resistance,  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  for  several  days  the  savage  barbarity  of  the 
conquerors  se'nt  to  the  scaffold,  without  discrimi- 
nation and  without   trial,  great  numbers  of  the 
principal   inhabitants,  to  appease   the  vindictive 
wrath  of  the  monster  Goyeneche.     After  the  first 


33 

flush  of  victory  was  over,  it  was  deemed  proper  to 
give  some  formality  to  the  bloody  business.  The 
opinion  of  Cisneros  was  consulted  upon  the  fate  of 
those  who  were  not  yet  executed,  and  then  it  was 
that  this  Viceroy  imbrued  his  hands  in  the  blood 
of  men  to  whom  their  country  owed  a  crown.  The 
last  punishment  was  decreed  against  all  who  re- 
mained in  prison,  and  it  was  only  the  establish- 
ment of  the  new  government  at  Buenos  Ayres  that 
saved  their  lives,  and  among  the  rest  that  of  a  dis- 
tinguished priest,  whose  pardon  the  Viceroy  grant- 
ed after  he  had  been  deposed,  and  which  was  *■ 
brought  to  La  Paz  by  a  courier  just  in  time  to 
prevent  the  execution  of  the  sentence.  By  the 
same  accidental  circumstance,  great  numbers  im- 
plicated in  the  revolution  were  set  at  liberty,  who 
were  near  Buenos  Ayres  in  chains,  to  be  trans- 
ported to  the  dungeons  of  the  Philippines,  the  Mal- 
vinas,  and  the  Peninsula. 

La  Paz  became  like  a  desert  after  such  desola- 
tion, and  the  few  of  the  miserable  inhabitants  who 
remained  alive,  inspired  by  that  stubborn  valour 
which  adversity  strengthened  but  could  not  sub- 
due, fled  to  the  forests  of  Yrupana,  whither  they 
were  instantly  pursued  by  a  strong  division 
of  the  royal  troops,  and  fell  in  battle,  or  expired 
by  famine,  in  preference  to  surrendering  to  their 
enemies.  The  names  of  Lanzas  and  Rodriguez, 
the  leaders  of  that  revolution,  will  remain  em- 
balmed in  the  hearts  of  their  compatriots,  and  find 
a  conspicuous  place  in  the  history  of  their  country. 
It  is  such  facts  as  these  which  force  upon  us  the 

E 


34 

conviction  that  the  independence  of  this  country  is 
inevitable,  whatever  may  be  the  success  of  the 
war  that  is  now  waging. 

The  transactions  at  Bayonne  in  1808,  already 
mentioned,  produced  events,  such  as  have  not 
frequently  been  presented  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  The  immediate  connexion  between  Spain 
and  her  colonies  being  dissolved  by  a  political 
orphanage,  into  which  she  was  thrown  in  conse- 
quence of  the  sudden  dissolution  of  her  monarchy, 
the  destiny  of  sixteen  millions  of  people  could  not 
long  remain  subject  to  the  control  of  those  men 
who  had  constituted  themselves  the  sovereigns  of 
South  America. 

Upon  the  arrival  of  the  first  news  of  these 
events,  the  people  began  to  employ  their  thoughts 
about  their  future  political  situation,  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  which,  by  reason  of  her  recent  military 
success  against  the  British,  was  placed  in  a 
different  situation  from  the  other  Provinces  of 
South  America,"  saw  that  the  time  had  come  to 
burst  the  bonds  which  united  her  to  the  mother 
country.  The  same  sentiment  manifested  itself 
throughout  the  whole  country ;  no  one  doubted 
of  the  subjugation  of  Spain  by  Napoleon,  news  to 
that  effect  arriving  almost  every  day.  At  this 
time  it  was  that  secret  meetings  of  the  people  be- 
gan to  be  held  in  La  Paz,  Charcas,  Potosi,  Cocha- 
bamba,  and  Buenos  Ayres,  and  in  those  secret 
clubs  was  discussed  the  mode  of  forming  a  new 
government.  The  leaders  in  La  Paz  were  the 
two  Lanzas   and  Rodrigues ;  in  Charcas,  the  two 


35 

Sudanes  and  the  Indian  canon,  Manco  Capac ;  in 
Salta,  Moldez ;  in  Cochabamba,  Arenales  ;  and  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  Castelli,  Belgrano,  Chiclana,  Viey- 
tes,  Pena,  Beruti,  Donado,  Yrigoyen,  Thompson, 
&c.  These  bold  men  felt  the  impulse  of  liberty 
irresistible  in  their  hearts,  and  fearlessly  exposed 
their  lives  and  fortunes  in  the  glorious  cause.  The 
leaders  in  La  Paz  and  Charcas,  broke  asunder 
impatiently  the  shackles  of  the  ancient  dominion, 
and  became  the  victims  of  Spanish  wrath ;  they 
aroused  the  Viceroy  Cisneros  to  greater  activity, 
who,  not  finding  himself  secure  in  his  government 
a  single  moment,  established  a  political  inquisi- 
tion more  severe  than  that  of  Torquemada.  Yet 
these  sons  of  the  South,  animated  with  that  daunt- 
less valour  which  the  love  of  liberty  inspires,  un- 
appalled  by  the  horrid  punishments  which  had 
been  inflicted  at  La  Paz,  had  boldness  enough  to 
provoke  the  relentless  vengeance  of  a  powerful 
Viceroy. 

Castelli,  a  lawyer  of  reputation  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
made  his  country-house  the  rendezvous  for  the 
secret  meetings  of  the  revolutionists.  There  they 
met,  eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  governmental 
spies.  They  look  care  to  gain  to  their  interests 
the  soldiery  in  Buenos  Ayres,  who  were  at  that 
time  4000  strong.  Of  these,  1000  were  the  regi- 
ment Patricios,  from  the  city,  under  the  command 
of  Colonel  Saavedra;  another  regiment,  Jlrribanos 
or  highlanders,  commanded  by  Colonel  Ocampo; 
and  the  cavalry,  composed  of  Creoles,  under  the 
command  of  Rodriguez.     These  were  by  far  the 


36 

best  troops,  and  took  part  with  the  revolutionists. 
Those  who  remained  attached  to  the  interests  of 
the  Viceroy,  were  the  regiment  del  Fixo,  the  dra- 
goons, and  the  other  European  corps. 

Already  had  the  revolutionists  conciliated  the 
good  wishes  of  the  citizens,  and  were  waiting  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  strike  a  decisive  blow, 
when  an  English  vessel  from  Gibraltar  arrived  at 
Monte  Video,  bringing  the  information  of  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Junta  central  in  Spain,  and  the 
passage  of  the  French  troops  through  the  pass  of 
Sierra  Morena.  The  Viceroy  immediately  issued 
a  proclamation,  announcing  the  disastrous  state 
of  Spain,  and  thereupon  the  revolutionists  com- 
pelled the  cabildo  or  municipality  to  ask  permis- 
sion of  the  Viceroy  to  call  a  public  meeting  of  the 
citizens,  {Cabildo  Abiertoj)  and  accordingly  that 
body,  which  was  composed  of  five  Americans  and 
a  man  named  Leyba,  of  distinguished  abilities 
and  probity,  on  the  20th  of  May  addressed  the 
following  note  to  the  Viceroy : 

"  Most  excellent  Sir, 

"  The  people  being  informed  of  the  unhappy 
events  of  the  Peninsula,  by  the  printed  paper  pub- 
lished by  the  order  of  your  Excellency,  and  ani- 
mated by  that  innate  loyalty  to  their  sovereign, 
and  by  those  patriotic  sentiments  which  have 
ever  distinguished  them ;  anxious  about  their  fu- 
ture situation,  and  desirous  of  that  which  will 
best  promote  their  felicity,  and  with  the  unaltera- 
ble object  of  preserving  entire  the  country  under 


37 

the  government  of  Senor  Don  Fernando  VII,  are 
plunged  into  great  disquietude,  which,  if  not 
speedily  removed,  will  be  the  cause  of  lasting 
commotions.  This  Cabildo,  watchful  over  the 
prosperity  of  the  people,  and  greatly  interested 
in  their  union,  order,  and  tranquillity,  lay  these 
facts  before  your  Excellency,  and,  to  prevent  the 
disasters  of  a  popular  convulsion,  desire  to  obtain 
of  your  Excellency  free  permission  to  convoke, 
by  means  of  tickets,  the  principal  citizens,  and 
that  in  a  public  congress  the  will  of  the  people 
may  be  expressed,  and  that  they  may  determine 
upon  the  measures  most  proper  to  prevent  all 
misfortune  and  secure  our  future  destiny. 

"  Your  Excellency  will  please,  on  the  day  of  the 
Congress,  to  post  double  guards  at  all  the  avenues 
leading  to  the  public  Square,  to  prevent  any  tu- 
mult, and  to  permit  those  only  to  enter  who  have 
tickets. 

"  God  preserve  your  Excellency,  &c." 

The  Viceroy,  perceiving  that  his  power  was  un- 
dermined, and  that  he  could  not  prevent  the 
meeting,  allowed  it  with  the  best  grace  he  could. 
In  this  public  assembly,  in  which  were  present 
all  who  held  employments  under  the  Spanish  go- 
vernment, in  order  to  neutralize  as  much  as  pos- 
sible the  influence  of  the  Creoles,  the  question  for 
discussion  was,  Whether,  after  the  dissolution  of 
the  Junta  central,  the  authority  of  the  Viceroy 
ceased,  and  consequently,  whether  the  people 
could  proceed   to  protect  their  own  rights  and 


38 

those  of  king  Ferdinand.  ,  After  a  warm  debate, 
which  continued  through  the  day,  in  which  Cas- 
telli  with  his  popular  eloquence  confounded  the 
Europeans  who  mingled  in  the  debate,  and  con- 
vinced them  that  they  could  not  contend  with  the 
orators  of  the  people,  who,  besides  the  superiority 
of  their  talents,  were  supported  by  a  body  of 
armed  citizens,  called  Manolos,  who  were  posted 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  public  Square,  to  see 
that  no  harm  befel  the  friends  of  the  people.  At 
length  a  majority  of  the  assembly  decreed  that 
the  authority  of  the  Viceroy  was  at  an  end,  and 
that  it  should  be  resumed  by  the  Cabildo,  which 
immediately  proceeded  to  appoint  a  Junta  guber- 
nativa,  leaving  the  Viceroy,  however,  President  of 
the  Junta.  Scarcely  were  the  people  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  establishment  of  the  new  go- 
vernment, than  a  new  disturbance  broke  out, 
and  a  memorial  was  addressed  to  the  Cabildo, 
stating,  that  it  was  not  the  will  of  the  people  that 
the  Viceroy  should  hold  any  place  in  the  new  go- 
vernment. A  new  Junta  of  nine  persons  was 
thereupon  established,  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand 
VII,  whose  members  were  Saavedra,  Azcuenaga, 
Alberti,  Matheu,  Larrea,  Castelli,  Belgrano,  Paso, 
and  Moreno. 

This  mode  of  deposing  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  country,  by  a  popular  meeting,  and  of 
which  the  history  of  the  colonies  scarcely  pre- 
sents any  examples,  was  not  novel  in  Buenos 
Ayres ;  for  in  the  year  1 307,  they  deposed  the 
Viceroy,  Sobremonte,  on  account  of  his  incapa- 


39 

city,  and  his  negligence  in  the  defence  of  the  coun- 
try against  the  attack  of  1500  English  troops  un- 
der General  Berresford.  The  Spaniards  them- 
selves aided  in  deposing  him,  and  the  measure 
was  even  approved  in  the  court  of  Madrid,  which 
ought  to  have  known  that  they  were  sanctioning  a 
dangerous  precedent,  which  the  people  at  a  future 
day  would  be  likely  to  repeat. 

This  new  government  was  established  on  the 
25th  May,  1810,  and  covered  with  mourning  all 
the  European  Spaniards,  who  saw  that  the  mea- 
sure would  put  an  end  to  the  Spanish  domination 
in  South  America,  and  that,  although  at  present 
the  name  of  Ferdinand  VII  still  presented  itself, 
it  could  no  longer  captivate  the  hearts  of  the 
Americans,  and  that  it  was  preserved  only  as  a 
political  manoeuvre  to  remove  difficulties,  and  by 
its  influence  to  give  greater  vivacity  to  that  spirit 
of  independence  which  pervaded  every  breast. 

This  new  political  explosion,  which  resounded 
throughout  all  that  hemisphere,  struck  alarm  into 
the  hearts  of  the  Spanish  authorities,  who  redou- 
bled their  efforts  to  stifle  in  the  embers  a  fire 
which  threatened  such  extensive  devastation. 
The  Ex-Viceroy,  Cisneros,  issued  circulars  to 
the  governors  of  the  provinces,  exciting  them 
to  kindle  a  civil  war.  The  Viceroy  of  Lima, 
Abascal,  aroused  himself  from  his  repose,  and 
flew  to  arms: — Nieto,  the  President  of  Char- 
cas;  Sans,  the  Governor  of  Potosi;  Velasco, 
of  Paraguay ;  Concha,  of  Cordova,  and  Orellana  // 
the   Bishop;  Liniers,  the  Ex-Viceroy  of  Buenos 


40 

Ayrcs ;  Allende,  Moreno,  the  officers  of  the  Marine 
of  Monte  Video : — finally,  all  who  were  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Spanish  government,  took  up  arms,  not 
so  much  in  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  to  protect 
his  rights,  (whose  restoration  no  one  believed  pro- 
bable,) as  to  maintain  their  own  power,  and  to  de- 
stroy, in  the  very  beginning,  a  subversive  govern- 
ment, whose  members,  without  money,  influence, 
or  political  connexions,  and  confined  to  the  city  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  could  not  exist  for  any  length  of 
time.  Such  were  the  hopes  that  were  cherished ; 
and  it  really  would  have  appeared  a  most  rash  en- 
terprise, had  it  not  been  the  result  of  previous  suc- 
cesses, and  been  supported  by  the  general  will, 
which  gives  to  a  popular  government  all  the  force 
and  vigour  necessary  to  the  achievement  of  great 
undertakings. 

A  division  of  less  than  1000  men,  called  auxi- 
liaries, under  the  command  of  Ocampo,  proceed- 
ed to  Peru,  and  swept  before  it  the  clouds  of  ene- 
mies which  hung  over  that  country,  menacing  de- 
struction to  the  patriots. 

Concha,  Liniers,,  Orellana  the  Bishop,  and 
others,  raised  an  army  in  Cordova,  and  put  them- 
selves at  its  head ;  but  they  were  soon  deserted 
by  their  troops,  apprehended,  and  shot,  all  but 
the  Bishop,  whose  religious  character  saved  his 
life.  The  execution  of  these  distinguished  men. 
and  particularly  of  the  unhappy  Liniers,  who  a 
short  time  before  had  led  to  the  field  of  glory 
against  the  English,  the  same  troops  who  were 
now  the  instruments  of  his  death,  was  a  matter*  of 


41 

the  greatest  astonishment  to  the  Spanish  chiefs, 
and  proved  to  them  that  the  men  who  had  con- 
tended in  arms  against  Whitelocke  and  Berres- 
ford  for  the  rights  of  the  mother  country,  were 
now  resolved  to  contend  for  their  own.  The 
auxiliary  division,  as  it  advanced  its  positions, 
augmented  its  numbers ;  it  was  received  in  every 
town  through  whictf'it  passed  with  the  loudest 
acclamations  of  joy. 

The  royal  army  of  Peru,  under  Sanz,  Nieto,  and 
Cordova,  was  fortified  at  Suypacha,  which  was  con- 
sidered a  very  advantageous  position ;  there  the 
patriots  under  JBalcarce  gave  them  battle,  and 
completely  routed  them,  and  again,  afterwards, 
at  Tupiza.  The  fate  of  the  royalist  chiefs  here 
was  the  same  as  that  of  the  others  at  Cordova; 
they  were  likewise  shot.  The  President  Nieto 
harassed  the  garrison  at  Charcas  in  the  most  op- 
pressive and  vexatious  manner,condemning  all  who 
spoke  in  favour  of  the  patriots  to  hard  labour  in 
the  mines,  and  to  the  most  degrading  employments. 
This  man  came  to  America  in  company  with  the 
Viceroy  Cisneros,  after  the  battle  of  Rio  Seco,  in 
Spain,  and  he  manifested  in  all  his  conduct,  that 
he  was  only  actuated  by  that  spirit  of  licentious- 
ness, covetousness,  and  meanness,  in  which  he 
had  spent  his  life. 

It  is  a  custom  with  the  Peruvians  to  make  pre- 
sents to  their  chiefs  on  their  arrival  in  the  coun- 
try to  assume  their  commands,  and  on  their  de- 
parture ;  they  made  Nieto  a  sumptuous  present 
of  several  pieces  of  gold  of  great  value;  never 

F 


having  been  master  of  so  much  treasure  before, 
he  received  them  in  a  phrenzy  of  joy,  and  forget- 
ing  the  dignity  of  his  rank  and  all  sense  of  pro- 
priety, he  broke  into  the  following  exclamations, 
kneeling  before  the  gold, — "  God  of  Peru !  uni- 
versal consolation  of  mankind!  in  search  of  thee, 
men  come  from  the  most  distant  lands,  traversing 
the  ocean,  and  braving  the  greatest  dangers ;  my 
heart  is  dissolved  in  pleasure  in  possessing  thee !" 
at  the  same  time  kissing  the  pieces  and  pressing 
them  to  his  bosom.  The  persons  present  beheld 
with  astonishment  and  disgust  the  conduct  of  this 
old  man,  who  in  less  than  a  year  in  his  govern- 
ment, accumulated  by  his  rapacity  more  than 
$100,000.  Not  so,  Sanz,  the  governor  ofPotosi; 
he  was  as  noble-minded  and  generous  as  the  other 
was  mean  and  rapacious. 


43 


LETTER  IV. 

The  Patriots  being  now  in  possession  of  the 
fountain  of  riches  and  the  best  Provinces  in  the 
Union,  and  victorious  over  the  Royalists,  had  their 
head-quarters  at  Laxa,  six  leagues  north  west  of 
the  city  of  La  Paz,  in  the  Province  of  La  Paz,  the 
most  distant  from  Buenos  Ayres.  Their  line  ex- 
tended along  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Desagua- 
dero,  occupying  the  villages  of  Guaqui,  Yorayco- 
ragua,  and  Machaca.  Their  army  consisted  of 
6,000  men,  under  Balcarce,  commander  in  chief, 
Viamonte,  Dias  Veles,  and  Rivero.  The  royal 
army  was  between  5  and  6000  strong,  under  the 
command  of  Goyeneche,  at  Desaguadero. 

A  succession  of  rapid  triumphs  intoxicated  the 
Patriots,  who  continued  to  hope  for  the  happiest 
events;  and  on  the  25th  of  May,  1811,  they  cele- 
brated the  anniversary  of  the  revolution,  on  the 
magnificent  ruins  of  the  Palace  of  the  Inca,  Mayta 
Capac,  at  Tiaguenaco,  (lat.  17°  5'  South,)  singing 
hymns  to' their  country  and  to  liberty. 

The  glorious  events  just  recounted,  united  with 
the  revolution  of  Caraccas  in  April,  1810;  ofChili, 
in  September  of  the  same  year,  and  Banda  Ori- 
ental ;  and  the  circulation  of  newspapers  through 
the  country,  which  then  first  began  to  be  printed, 
sent  the  fire  of  the  revolution  into  the  heart  of 
Peru,  made  the  government  at  Lima  tremble,  and 
compelled  it  to  permit  the  Cabildo  to  open  nego- 
tiations with  Castelli.  who  had  accompanied  the 


44 

auxiliary  army  as  the  representative  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Buenos  Ayres. 

From  these  negotiations  resulted  an  armistice 
of  forty  days,  in  order  that  time  might  be  afforded 
to  consult  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres.  This 
interval  was  well  improved  by  the  enemy,  while 
the  Patriots,  slumbering  over  their  brilliant  pros- 
pects, relaxed  their  military  discipline,  neglected 
the  points  of  defence,  and  gave  the  enemy  an  op- 
portunity of  attacking  them  to  great  advantage  ; 
and  thus,  of  giving  courage  to  their  timid  troops, 
who,  according  to  the  remark  of  Goyeneche  to 
Sanz,  "  were  men  but  not  soldiers." 

A  circumstance  which  was  indeed  the  principal 
cause  of  the  misfortunes  which  followed,  ought  not 
to  be  overlooked.  The  auxiliaries  of  Buenos  Ayres 
were  more  expert  troops  than  the  Peruvians,  and 
were  possessed  of  more  vivacity  of  genius ;  theirwars 
with  the  English  had  given  them  a  martial  air  and 
spirit,  and  their  commerce,  their  intercourse  with 
foreigners,  and  other  circumstances,  had  rendered 
them  more  liberal  in  their  opinions,  and  particu- 
larly in  matters  of  religious  worship;  and  they 
consequently  regarded  with  little  respect  the 
modes  of  worship  practised  by  the  Peruvians., 
which  consist  chiefly  in  external  forms  and  super- 
stitious ceremonies.  This  difference  of  character 
being  observed  by  Goyeneche,  he  found  it  a 
powerful  resort  in  accomplishing  his  purposes  : 
he  persuaded  the  Peruvians  that  the  Buenos 
Ayreans  had  come  into  their  country  to  destroy 
their  religion ;  that  for  their  neglect  of  the  cere- 


45 

monies  of  the  Church,  they  ought  to  be  ranked 
among  the  enemies  of  God  and  the  King ;  and  at 
the  same  time  he  solemnly  proclaimed  throughout 
his  army  the  Virgin  del  Carmen,  the  commander 
in  chief,   and  himself,  as  her  Lieutenant.     This 
language,  reiterated  by  the  chaplains  of  the  differ- 
ent corps,  who  were  fanatic  priests,  produced  the 
same  effects  on  the  minds  of  the  miserable  and 
ignorant  soldiery,  as  have  always  been  caused 
by  religious  fanaticism.   These  weak  minded  men, 
who  were  mostly  Indians  of  Cuzco,  and  Mestizos, 
the  most  degraded  portion  of  the  population  of 
South  America,  divesting  themselves  of  the  fear 
with  which  they  had  previously  viewed  the  mili- 
tary superiority  of  the  Auxiliaries,  went  to  battle 
with  the  same  enthusiasm  as  the  crusaders  under 
Peter  the  Hermit.     Goyeneche  not  waiting  the 
termination  of  the  armistice,  and  taking  advantage 
of  these  fortunate  circumstances  in  his  favour,  at- 
tacked the  auxiliaries  on  the  morning  of  the  20th 
July,    1811,  and  so  completely  routed  them,  that 
they  all  abandoned  themselves  to  flight,  leaving  on 
the  field  all  their  artillery  and  baggage ;  and  the 
representative,  Castelli,  did  not  stop  in  his  flight, 
until  he  reached  Macha,    100  leagues  distant ; 
where  he  published  an  account  of  these  disasters. 
Since  this  unfortunate  battle,  the  Patriots  have 
never  recovered  their  western  frontier. 

1  stated  in  the  beginning  that  Paraguay  differed 
from  the  other  Provinces  of  South  America  in  the 
character  of  its  inhabitants.  This  character  is 
peculiar,  and  has  lonjy  been  observed.    This  Pro- 


4i5 

vince,  like  Monte  Video,  has  never  joined  the 
Union.  In  vain  did  Buenos  Ayres  send  emissaries 
into  it  to  inform  the  people  of  the  new  order  of 
things.  It  was  at  length  deemed  necessary  l>y  the 
government  to  send  there  a  military  expedition 
to  put  the  people  in  possession  of  their  rights, 
and  to  separate  them  from  the  control  of  the 
Spanish  governor  Velasco,  who  at  the  same  time 
assembled  all  his  force  to  decide  the  controversy. 
General  Belgrano  was  the  chief  of  the  expedition; 
he  penetrated  into  the  country  as  far  as  the  river 
Tacuari,  (1 1  leagues  from  the  capital,  Assump- 
cion.)  where  he  met  the  army  of  Paraguay  under 
the  command  of  Yedros,  by  whom  he  was  defeat- 
ed. He  afterwards  craftily  opened  negotiations 
with  Yedros,  and  effected  his  retreat  without  mo- 
lestation. 

The  Paraguayans  did  not  need  the  aid  of  the 
Buenos  Ayreans  to  establish  their  independ- 
ence. They  deposed  their  governor,  Velasco, 
and  established  a  government  of  their  own,  distinct 
from  that  of  the  union,  to  which  they  have  never 
united  themselves,  notwithstanding  the  solicita- 
tions of  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Their 
last  governor  was  Francia,  who  rules  over  them 
according  to  their  peculiar  manners  and  customs, 
and  his  own,  practical  knowledge  of  the  country, 


47 


LETTER  V. 

I  now  return  to  Buenos  Ayres,  where  the  spirit 
of  discord  broke  out  afresh,  as  soon  as  the  appre- 
hension of  danger  was  removed.  For  more  than 
six  months  had  the  prospect  been  truly  flattering 
to  the  patriots,  and  so  rapid  had  been  the  suc- 
cession of  happy  events,  that  it  was  confidently 
believed  by  all,  that  the  standard  of  liberty  would 
soon  be  erected  in  the  capital  of  Peru,  and  the 
whole  country  delivered  from  its  oppressors,  from 
the  isthmus  of  Panama  to  Cape  Horn.  But  inter- 
nal dissentions  and  the  lust  of  power  interrupted 
the  progress  of  a  cause  which  involved  the  felici- 
ty of  millions  of  souls. 

At  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Junta  guber- 
nativa,  it  was  ordered  that  an  officer,  similar  to 
the  Viceroy,  should  be  substituted  in  his  place, 
who  was  called  the  President,  and  to  whom  all 
the  ceremonies  and  honours  belonging  to  the  su- 
preme authority  of  the  country  were  paid.  As 
the  people  saw  in  the  President  the  whole  ap- 
pearance of  the  supreme  chief,  they  naturally  re- 
garded him  as  the  only  person  in  the  government. 
This  idea  caused  inconveniences  which  operated 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  republican  system  of  go- 
vernment which  they  wished  to  establish.  The 
Junta  discovered  at  a  late  period  these  inconve- 
niences, and  resolved  to  abolish  the  honours  paid 
to  the  President,  decreeing,  that  no  individual 
member  of  the  government  should  receive  any 


48 

marks  of  distinction,  except  when  they  were  all 
assembled,  or  on  days  of  ceremony. 

As  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  accus- 
tomed to  see  their  supreme  chief  treated  as  an 
ordinary  gentleman,  without  any  particular  marks 
of  distinction  or  ceremony,  it  may  not  be  unin- 
teresting to  state  what  were  the  honours  which 
were  paid  to  the  President  of  the  Junta.  His 
dwelling,  which  was  provided  by  the  government, 
was  called  his  palace ;  a  sentinel  with  a  loaded 
musket  was  posted  at  every  avenue  leading  to  it; 
in  the  antichamber  were  two  aids-de-camp,  wear- 
ing a  peculiar  uniform ;  whenever  he  rode  out,  it 
was  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  six  horses,  accom- 
panied by  an  escort  of  dragoons,  sometimes  to 
the  number  of  12,  and  sometimes  60.  He  was 
always  saluted  by  the  troops  as  commander  in 
chief,  and  in  the  church  peculiar  honours  were 
paid  to  him.  These  ceremonies,  which  were 
considered  as  anti-republican,  were  all  abolished 
at  the  period  above  alluded  to.  The  succeeding 
members  of  the  government  lived  like  private 
citizens  in  their  own  houses,  until  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Director  Posadas,  who  revived  all  the 
former  ceremonies,  and  created  as  attendants 
upon  his  person,  several  young  officers  under  the 
name  of  Pages.  He  wore  on  his  shoulder  a  blue 
band  similar  to  that  worn  by  Louis  XV1I1.  The 
same  ceremonies  have  been  continued  to  Uie  ad- 
ministration of  the  present  supreme  Director, 
Pueyrredon,  who  adopts  them  all,  and  who  has 


49 

a  particular  seat  appropriated  to  him  at  the  thea- 
tre, where  the  people  rise  at  his  entrance. ' 

The  first  President  was  Saavedra,  the  colonel 
of  a  regiment.  He  was  much  gratified  with  these 
puhlic  ceremonies,  and  was  not  a  little  displeased 
at  their  being  abolished.  Pie  resolved  to  avenge 
himself  upon  the  man  whom  he  believed  to  be  the 
author  of  the  measure,  and  the  secretary,  Moreio, 
was  the  victim  of  his  resentment.  Moreno  was  a 
young  lawyer  of  Buenos  Ayres,  possessing  the 
genuine  feelings  of  a  republican,  and  who  consi- 
dered these  imposing  ceremonies  as  incompatible 
with  the  nature  of  the  new  government.  He  had 
acquired  an  ascendancy  in  the  government  by  the 
superiority  of  his  talents,  and  the  firmness  of  his 
character,  and  to  him,  in  a  great  measure,  may  the 
rapid  progress  of  the  revolution  be  attributed. 
Buenos  Ayres  remembers  with  sorrow  the  untime- 
ly death  of  this  young  man,  who,  by  his  extensive 
knowledge,  the  brilliancy  of  his  writings,  and  the 
purity  of  his  morals,  was  an  ornament  to  American 
literature,  and  an  honour  to  his  country. 

Saavedra,  in  order  the  better  to  check  the  influ- 
ence of  Moreno,  plotted  with  the  deputies  of  the 
people  from  the  interior,  to  procure  their  incor- 
poration into  the  Junta. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  an  executive  body,  compos- 
ed o"nine  members,  was  already  too  numerous  to 
proceed  with  much  expedition  in  their  measures ; 
and  the  addition  of  thirteen  more  would  necessa- 
rily augment  the  inconvenience,  particularly  in 
those  troublesome  times.     But  when  vengeance, 

G 


50 

or  private  interest  predominates,  reason  is  silent; 
and  Saavedra  succeeded  in  his  project,  by  the 
votes  of  the  deputies,  in  a  congress  composed 
of  them  and  the  Junta,  which  was  held  for  the 
purpose  on  the  18th  of  December,  1810.  On 
this  occasion  Moreno  said,  "  that  he  considered 
the  incorporation  of  the  deputies  in  the  Junta 
as  hostile  to  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  the 
general  welfare  of  the  state ;  that  the  deputies 
were  called  to  establish  a  national  congress,  and 
until  the  meeting  of  the  congress  they  could  not 
exercise  any  power  as  representatives  ;  that  their 
character  was  irreconcileable  with  the  idea  of 
their  being  members  of  a  provisional  government ; 
and  that  the  circular  calling  them  together  to 
take  part  in  the  government,  was  an  improvident 
measure,  which  experience  would  prove  to  be 
impracticable." 

The  result  was  as  Moreno  predicted.  The 
administration  of  the  deputies  was  most  miserable 
and  disgraceful,  and  brought  the  enemy  to  the 
very  gates  of  the  capital.  The  Portuguese  under 
Souza  made  a  descent  upon  the  eastern  part  of 
their  territory ;  a  squadron  of  their  ships  was 
captured  by  the  marine  of  Monte  Video ;  the 
siege  of  that  city  was  not  prosecuted  with  any 
effect,  and  Buenos  Ayres  itself  was  bombarded 
by  a  squadron  under  the  command  of  Michelena, 
which  was  dispatched  by  the  Viceroy  Elio,  who 
was  at  Monte  Video. 

At  this  time  commenced  the  first  proscription 
of  the  citizens,  and  their  imprisonment  without 


k 


5.1 

trial.     At  length  the  deputies,  finding  themselves 
incapable  of  managing  the  government,  were  con- 
templating the  resignation  of  their  authority,  when 
in  October,  1811,  the   Cabildo  deposed  them  for 
their  incapacity,  at   the  request  of  the  people, 
and  erected  another  government   in  three   per- 
sons, who  were  Sarratea,  Chiclana,  and    Passo. 
The  administration  of  these  persons  revived  the 
hopes  of  all,  and  put  an  end  to  the  arbitrary  pro- 
scriptions of  the    former  administration ;    made 
peace  with  Elio ;  re-established  the  fundamental 
principles  of  civil  society,  by  restoring  to  the  peo- 
ple their  rights,  and   forming  a  provisional  statute 
which  regulated  the  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment; decreed  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  a 
mode  of  trial  in  cases  of  libel  similar  to  that  by 
jury;  organized  the  array,  gave  a  systematic  di- 
rection to  the  military  force  ;  appointed  a  general 
staff,  and  raised  a  corps  of  dragoons  not  inferior 
to  any  in  the  world ;  encouraged  the  freedom  of 
writing  and  speaking  upon  political  subjects;  in- 
vited foreigners  to  settle  in  the  country;  made 
books  free  of  duty,  and  also  every  thing  relating  to 
science  and  the  arts,  implements  of  husbandry, 
instruments  for  mining,  and  all  kinds  of  machin- 
ery used  in  manufacturing  the  raw  materials  of 
the  country,  and  augmented  the  public  revenue, 
by  the  confiscated  property  of  Spaniards,  amount- 
ing to  $1,386,887.      This  government  began  to 
open  negotiations  with  the  envoy  of  Great  Britain, 
at  that  time  in  Brazil,  (Lord  Strangford,)  and  with 
the  Portuguese  government,  which  sent  a  minis- 


St 

ter,  (Don  Juan  Rademaker,)  to  Buenos  Ayres,  with 
whom  a  treaty  was  concluded  in  June,  1812,  and 
general  Souza-  retired  from  before  Monte  V  ideo, 
which  place  he  had  invested,  at  the  request  of  its 
chiefs,  with  the  combined  armies  of  the  east  and 
west.  This  government  raised  the  second  army 
of  Peru,  which  was  put  under  the  command  of 
Belgrano,  and  which  checked  the  operations  of 
the  royalists  under  general  Tristan,  who  had  ad- 
vanced to  Tucuman,  where  Belgrano,  on  the  24th 
September,  1 8 1 2, gave  him  battle,  fighting  3000  men 
with  only  1 600,  ami  defeated  him;  and  thus  was  dis- 
solved the  combination  of  the  marine  of  Monte  Vi- 
deo and  the  royalists.  The  inhabitants  of  Tucuman, 
who  on  this  day,  for  the  first  time,beheld  an  engage- 
ment, fought  with  great  bravery.  Oh  this  occasion, 
Belgrano,  imitating  the  example  of  Goyeneche, 
put  himself  under  the  holy  protection  of  the  vir- 
gin Mercedes,  whose  annual  festival  takes  place 
on  that  day.  Tristan  being  defeated,  retired  to 
Salta,  where  he  fortified  himself;  thither  Belgra- 
no pursued  him,  and  on  the  20th  February  fol- 
lowing, attacked  him  in  his  most  formidable  po- 
sitions, and  after  a  combat  of  three  hours  and  a 
half,  killed  and  took  prisoners  the  whole  army. 
This  victory  compelled  Goyeneche  to  retire  from 
Potosi,  and  the  revolution  spread  like  fire  through- 
out all  Peru.  But  a  generosity,  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  account  for,  operated  to  produce  the  most 
unhappy  effects.  Belgrano  set  at  liberty,  on  parole 
of  honour,  all  his  prisoners,  who  forgetting  their 
pledge,  took  up  arms  again,  and  meeting  Bel- 


J 


53 

grano  at  Vilcapugio  and  Ayoma,  on  the  north  oi 
Potosi,  defeated  him  in  both  places.  These  un- 
fortunate actions  produced  the  same  unhappy 
consequences,  as  the  defeat  at  Guaqui, — the  loss 
of  Peru. 


al 


LETTER  VI. 


The  provisional  statute  required  a  meeting  of 
the  Assembly  every  six  months,  principally  for  the 
purpose  of  electing  a  member  of  the  government, 
in  the  place  of  the  one  whose  term  had  expired, 
as  one  member  went  out  of  office  every  six  months. 
The  first  meeting  was  dissolved  by  an  arbitrary 
order  of  the  government ;  the  second,  by  a  mili- 
tary mob.     In  this  assembly,  which  was  held  in 
October,  1812,  Medrano  was  elected  in  the  place 
of  Sarratea,  who  was  at  that  time  commander  in 
chief  of  the  army  besieging  Monte  Video.     This 
election  was  disagreeable  to  several  persons,  par- 
ticularly to  the  faction  of  Alvear,  who  was  the 
leader  of  the  military  mob.     This  mob,  with  Al- 
rear   at   their   head,    assembled   in    the    public 
Square,  and  demanded,  in  the  name  of  the  peo- 
/  pie,  a  new  election,  "swearing  before  the  Most 
High,  that  they  would  never  leave  the  place  until 
their  wish  was  gratified."     A  fine  mode  this  of 
deliberating  upon  political  matters  !  The  Ca6ildo, 
to  whom  the  people  apply  in  all  times  of  emer- 
gency, dissolved  the  government  and  formed  ano- 
ther agreeably  to  the  wishes  of  the  mob.     The 
members  were  Pena,  Jonte,  and  Passo. 

Pueyrredon,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the 
last  administration,  which  was  dissolved,  did 
nothing  but  throw  it  into  confusion.  He  was 
expelled  from  his  situation  with  the  greatest 
scorn,  and  fled  from   the   city.    He  afterwards 


i>a 


addressed  from  his  retreat  a  submissive  memorial 
to  the  Cabildo,  endeavouring  to  exculpate  himself, 
and  praying  permission  to  return.  This  me- 
morial was  disregarded,  and  the  new  government 
banished  him  to  St.  Luis  in  the  interior,  where,  re- 
penting of  his  pusillanimity,  he  begged  forgiveness 
of  Alvear,  who  generously  forgave  him,  and  more- 
over conferred  honours  upon  him. 

This  military  mob  sorely  wounded  the  rights  of 
the  people  and  the  cause  of  liberty,  and  diminish- 
ed their  respect  and  consideration  in  the  eyes  of 
foreign  nations.  This  circumstance,  which  was 
known  to  the  faction,  hastened  the  meeting  of  the 
congress,  which  took  place  on  the  31st  January, 
1813,  under  the  name  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
and  which  was  clothed  with  more  power  than  the 
former  assembly.  In  this  body  were  several  mem- 
bers distinguished  for  their  talents,  their  liberality 
of  sentiment,  and  their  patriotism ;  and  who  pos- 
sessed a  thorough  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
true  interests  of  their  country.  In  their  debates 
the  practical  points  of  government  were  dis- 
cussed with  intelligence,  and  these  were  the  first 
essays  of  legislation  in  Spanish  America.  Their 
measures  are  actually  producing  great  benefits  to 
the  country.  Among  them  was  the  protection 
granted  to  foreigners  who  reside  in  the  country, 
authorizing  them  to  become  proprietors  of  mines, 
to  form  companies  to  work  them,  &c.  without  being 
vexed  for  their  religious  opinions,  and  giving  them 
permission  to  leave  the  country  when  they  please; 
making  free  of  duties  nil  implements  of  husbandry, 


56 

books,  and  printing  presses  ;  the  abolition  of 
•lavery,  and  the  progressive  manumission  of  the 
existing  slaves ;  the  abolishing  the  Inquisition,  and 
directing  that  no  person  under  forty  years  of  age 
could  be  a  professed  monk,  a  measure  adopted  to 
discourage  celibacy;  the  establishment  of  public- 
schools  and  mathematical  academies;  the  division 
of  the  powers  of  the  government  into  the  three 
branches  of  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial, 
and  the  concentration  of  the  executive  power  in 
one  person,  called  the  Supreme  Director.  This 
Assembly  undoubtedly  gave  more  regularity  to 
the  public  administration  and  energy  to  the  go- 
vernment, which  proceeded  with  prosperous  steps 
in  all  its  measures,  while  it  consulted  the  cause  of 
liberty,  and  the  true  interests  of  the  people. 

During  the  administration  of  Posadas,  who  \va^ 
the  first  Director,  the  important  place  of  Monte 
Video  was  taken  by  the  military  and  naval  force 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  under  Alvear  and  Brown,  in  the 
month  of  June,  1814.  Posadas  was  a  weak  man, 
and  altogether  incompetent  to  his  station,  and 
from  this  circumstance  resulted  many  evils  to  the 
country.  One  of  his  measures  was  the  sending 
Garcia  to  Rio  Janeiro  to  betray  his  country  to  the 
Portuguese.  He  lighted  the  torch  of  civil  war  against 
Artigas,  the  chief  of  the  Orientals,  for  whose  head 
he  offered  $4000;  irritated  the  feelings  of  the 
people  in  all  the  interior  Provinces,  and  finally 
renounced  his  place  in  order  that  his  nephew 
Alvear  should  succeed  him.  This  young  man. 
full  of  ambition  and  imprudence,  threw  the  country 


57 

into  confusion,  and  covered  it  with  sorrow ;  he  used 
the  assembly  as  an  instrument  in  his  hands  to 
promote  his  private  views;  destroyed  the  moral 
unity  of  the  people  and  the  army ;  and  went  to 
war  with  Artigas,  who  met  him  with  his  troops  at 
Santa  Fe.  This  scandalous  abuse  of  power  pro- 
voked the  people  to  such  an  extent,  that  they  took 
up  arms  and  taught  him  to  know,  that  if  force  was 
the  only  basis  of  his  power,  it  would  soon  be  the 
instrument  of  his  destruction ;  and  such  was  the 
result.  His  own  troops  deserted  him ;  his  princi- 
pal officers  made  a  merit  of  their  treachery 
to  him,  particularly  Alvares,  who,  while  march- 
ing with  the  van-guard  of  his  division  against  Ar- 
tigas, arrested  the  chief  of  his  division,  Viana, 
and  transformed  himself  into  a  friend  of  the  people, 
and  a  defender  of  their  rights. 

Alvear  was  deposed,  and  sent  out  of  the  coun- 
try in  disgrace ;  and  peace  being  restored  with  Ar- 
tigas, he  retired  to  his  former  positions. 

Rondeau,  general  of  the  army  of  Peru,  refused 
obedience  to  Alvear,  but  recognized  the  authority 
of  Buenos  Ayres ;  he  was  appointed  Supreme  Di- 
rector, but  being  with  the  army  in  Peru,  Alvares 
was  appointed  Director  ad  interim.  Rondeau 
passed  into  Peru  with  his  army  with  great  success, 
until  near  Cochabamba,  whither  he  was  pursued 
by  the  royalist  general  Pezuela,  an  officer  of  merit, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Sipe  Sipe  in  November,  1315^ 
in  which  both  chiefs  displayed  great  military 
skill,  and  the  troops  distinguished  bravery,  Ron- 

H 


50 

deau  was  defeated,  fortune  again  deciding  in  fa- 
vour of  Pezuela,  and  leaving  the  royalists  maslt  r 
of  iJeru  the  third  time. 

Subsequently  to  this  unhappy  period,  which 
terminated  in  April,  1815,  the  people,  having  been 
outraged  and  oppressed  by  a  military  government, 
when  they  had  overthrown  it,  immediately  passed 
to  the  extreme  of  liberty,  that  idol  of  mankind.  Not 
having  been  able  heretofore  to  check  the  usurpations 
of  the  executive  power,  they  now  formed  a  new  sta- 
tute called  the' Estatuto provisional,  which,  by  its  prin- 
ciples, was  a  code  of  anarchy.  Then  was  esta- 
blished the  Jimta  of  Observation,  as  it  was  call- 
ed, whose  duty,  like  that  of  the  Roman  con- 
suls in  times  of  public  danger,  was  to  see  that 
no  harm  befel  the  republic.  The  Cabildo  be- 
came military  commanders  of  a  regular  force,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  usurpations  and  arbitrary 
exercise  of  the  executive  power.  A  public  pa- 
per was  also  established,  under  the  name  of  the 
Censor,  to  censure,  if  necessary,  the  public  con- 
duct of  the  government ;  and  at  the  same  time 
was  confirmed  the  liberty  of  the  press.  These 
restrictions  upon  the  executive  power,  while  they 
manifest  inexperience  in  the  practical  science  of 
government,  are  unequivocal  testimonies  of  their 
knowledge  of  the  value  of  civil  liberty;  and  if 
they  now  wander  about  like  the  blind,  without  a 
guide  to  direct  them,  and  to  keep  them  within 
proper  limits,  nevertheless,  under  happier  auspi- 
ces and  better  times,  they  will  be  able  to  esta- 
blish and  maintain  that  political  balance  which 


59 

ought  to  exist  between  the  people  and  the  govern- 
ment. 

In  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  this  sta- 
tute, a  meeting  of  the  general  Congress  took  place 
on  the  25th  March,  181 6,  at  Tucuman,  400  leagues 
from  Buenos  Ay  res,  and  on  the  9th  July,  inde- 
pendence was  solemnly  declared  there,  at  a  time 
when  the  Portuguese  menaced  the  invasion  of  the 
territory.  From  that  city,  in  the  following  year, 
the  sitting  of  the  Congress  was  transferred  to 
Buenos  Ayres.  This  body  formed  a  provisional 
constitution,  which  was  very  defective,  and  with 
but  little  liberality  of  principle. 

The  administration  of  Alvares,  as  Director  ad 
interim,  was  very  short,  and  nothing  remarkable 
occurred  during  its  continuance,  except  the  arm- 
ing the  privateers.  To  Alvares,  succeeded  Bal- 
carce,  who  was  soon  deposed  like  the  former,  for 
not  showing  proper  vigilance  at  the  approach  of 
the  Portuguese,  as  was  alleged ;  and  a  commis- 
sion gubernativa  was  named,  composed  of  Yrigo- 
yen  and  Escalada,  until  the  arrival  of  Don  Juan 
Martin  Pueyrredon,  who  was  elected  supreme 
Director  by  the  Congress  at  Tucuman,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  18)6. 


GO 


LETTER  VII. 

The  re-conquest  of  Chili,  by  the  Spaniards  in 
October,  1814,  was  a  serious  blow  to  the  liberties 
of  the  provinces.  By  the  loss  of  Peru  and  Chili, 
Buenos  Ayres  was  left  without  any  internal  com- 
merce or  pecuniary  resources,  and  was  menaced 
every  moment  by  invasion  on  both  sides,  and  was 
also  deprived  of  Monte  Video,  by  the  Portuguese, 
which  was  a  vital  part  of  her  territorial  riches. 
The  consideration  of  such  imminent  dangers  re- 
doubled the  alacrity  of  the  people ;  no  murmurs 
against  the  heavy  contributions  were  heard,  and 
augmenting  their  courage  in  proportion  to  their 
disasters  and  disgrace,  they  resolved  on  the  con- 
quest of  Chili. 

Don  Jose  de  San  Martin,  who  was  at  Tucuman. 
repaired  to  Mendoza,  of  which  he  was  governor, 
to  check  the  enemy,  with  a  small  division,  which 
insensibly  increased  to  4000  men.  It  was  under 
the  directorship  of  Pueyrredon,  that  the  army  of 
the  Andes,  under  San  Martin,  commenced  its  ope- 
rations. This  fine  army,  in  the  best  state  of  dis- 
cipline, crossed  the  Andes  and  the  hills  of  Cha- 
cabuco,  and  began  its  career  of  glory  on  the  12th 
February,  1816.  It  attacked  and  defeated  the 
royalists  under  Marco,  the  President  of  Chili,  tak- 
ing 600  prisoners,  and  afterwards  Marco  himself, 
at  Valparaiso.  This  battle  again  opened  to  the 
patriots  the  fine  country  of  Chili,  and  after  taking 
posesssion  of  the  capital.  Santiago,  they  finished 


61 

the  great  work  of  the  revolution  on  the  banks  of 
the  Maypu,  on  the  5th  April,  1818,  in  which  glo- 
rious battie  the  royalist  army,  of  5300  veterans 
under  Osorio,  was  completely  annihilated ;  2009 
men  were  left  dead  on  the  field,  and  the  remain- 
der taken  prisoners,  with  all  their  artillery,  bag- 
gage, &c.  Honour  and  gratitude  to  the  heroes  of 
Maypu !  Their  memory  will  be  eternal,  like  the 
independence  which  has  been  sealed  with  their 
blood.  These  triumphs  will  undoubtedly  produce 
the  absolute  emancipation  of  South  America,  and 
ere  long  will  the  flag  of  liberty  float  upon  the  ca- 
pital of  Peru,  and  the  fountain  of  her  riches  be 
opened  to  the  knowledge  and  enterprise  of  the 
whole  civilized  world. 

The  administration  of  the  actual  Director,  mark- 
ed with  so  glorious  an  epoch  as  the  conquest  of 
Chili,  is  eclipsed  by  a  dastardly  submission  to  the 
Portuguese,  who  are  suffered  to  remain  masters 
of  Monte  Video,  and  all  the  littoral  side.  This 
city  is  the  key  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  of  all  the 
commerce  of  the  interior,  and  the  usurpation  and 
establishment  of  a  foreign  prince  in  that  quarter, 
must  be  considered  as  dangerous  to  the  integrity, 
liberty,  and  security  of  the  republic,  whose  foreign 
trade  is  absolutely  precarious  without  the  pos- 
session of  these  points. 


62 

LETTER  VIE 

We  left  Peru  after  the  battle  of  Guaqui,  in 
which  the  remnant  of  the  patriot  army  was  forced 
to  retire  to  Salta. 

The  Spaniards  re-conquered  the  country,  hut 
not  the  hearts  of  the  people.  They  had  begun  to 
taste  the  seductive  sweets  of  liberty,  which,  pro- 
mising enjoyments  they  had  never  experienced, 
made  them  eager  in  its  pursuit.  Peru,  which  had 
heretofore  been  regarded  as  a  country  destined 
only  to  supply  Europeans  with  the  precious 
metals,  was  then  converted  into  a  field  of  blood  : 
her  noblest  sons  butchered  without  remorse  on 
the  field  of  battle  and  on  the  scaffold,  her  cities 
desolated,  villages  destroyed  by  fire,  vineyards 
rooted  up,  and  mines  deserted,  and  her  noblest 
families  driven  into  exile  and  beggary. 

Goyeneche,  after  establishing  his  head  quarters 
at  Potosi,  sent  his  second  in  command,  Tristan,  to 
Tucuman  and  to  Salta,  where  he  was  defeated  by 
Belgrano,  as  I  have  already  stated.  In  the 
mean  time,  Goyeneche  did  not  remain  tranquil 
at  Potosi,  as  a  general  insurrection  among  the 
Indians  again  broke  out  in  the  district  of  La. 
Paz,  who  laid  siege  to  the  city,  and  the  brave 
patriot  Arce  reconquered  Cochabamba.  Goye- 
neche, not  alarmed  at  these  events,  marched 
to  Cochabamba,  with  his  best  troops,  defeated 
Arce,  and  drew  near  to  the  city,  when  Antesana, 
the  President  of  the  Junta,  proposed  to  implore 


63 

the  clemency  of  the  conqueror;  a  measure  which 
was  reprobated  by  the  people,  who  were  opposed 
to  every  sort  of  submission ;  preferring  to  it  all 
the  horrors  of  war. 

This  heroic  people,  greatly  inferior  in  numbers 
and  discipline,  and  having  scarcely  one  hundred 
muskets,  fought  with  the  most  stubborn  valour, 
though  irregularly,  and  the  women  intermingled 
in  the  combat  promiscuously  with  the  men. 
Goyeneche  at  length  forced  his  way  into  the 
city  over  the  dead  bodies  of  the  slain,  and  con- 
signed the  devoted  place  to  the  lawless  plunder 
of  the  soldiery,  and  to  all  the  horrors  of  Spanish 
ferocity.  The  unhappy  Antesana,  who  had  con- 
cealed himself  in  a  convent,  was  dragged  forth 
and  beheaded,  and  his  head  stuck  upon  a  pike 
and  paraded  through  the  streets. 

At  the  time  these  things  were  happening  in 
Cochabamba,  a  new  insurrection  broke  out  in  the 
Provinces  of  Chayanta  and  Paria,  near  Polosi. 
Thither  Goyeneche  sent  one  Emas,  a  Catalan,  a 
wretch  who  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword  more 
than  sixty  villages,  and  when  he  became  weary 
with  his  murderous  and  desolating  career,  he  in- 
dulged himself  in  the  horrid  and  brutal  sport  of 
cutting  off  the  ears  of  the  Patriots  to  mark  them. 
Goyeneche  returned  to  Potosi,  glutted  with 
the  blood  of  his  slaughtered  countrymen.  He 
retired  from  thence  to  Oruro,  after  the  vic- 
tory of  Salta  in  February,  1813,  and  thus  re- 
lieved the  afflictions  of  Potosi,  and  the  south- 
ern  Provinces  of  Upper  Peru.      Oruro   is  situ- 


64 

ated  in  the  north  of  Upper  Peru,  (17°  58'  South 
latitude,)  and  is  the  best  military  position  in  that 
quarter;  having  a  direct  and  well  made  road  to 
Lima,  from  which  place  Pezuela  came  with  troops 
and  arms  to  relieve  Goyeneche. 

Pezuela,  who  was  an  officer  of  distinguished  mili- 
tary talents,  gave  a  skilful  direction  to  his  move- 
ments, and  in  the  actions  of  Vilcapugio  and  Ayo- 
ma,  destroyed  the  patriot  army  under  Belgrano. 
In  these  actions,  the  patriots  again  lost  Peru,  and 
Pezuela  became  master  of  the  country,  even  to 
Salta  and  Jujui. 

The  fugitive  Cochabambians  united  again  at  Valle 
Grande,  and  with  an  intrepidity  which  was  inspir- 
ed by  despair,  charged  upon  a  division  of  1000 
men  and  cut  them  to  pieces;  and  uniting  with 
Warnes,  who  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Santa 
Crucians,  re-conquered  their  country.  This  suc- 
cess re-animated  the  hopes  of  the  patriots,  and  in- 
surrections among  the  people  again  became  gene- 
ral. Warnes  proceeded  to  Chiquitos,  where  he  also 
finally  defeated  the  royalists.  General  Camargo 
took  possession  of  the  province  of  Chayante,  and 
maintained  there  with  great  spirit  and  success  a 
partizan  warfare.  Padilla,  a  patriot  leader,  fixed 
his  head-quarters  at  Yamparaes,  where  he  defeat- 
ed Tacon.  The  Indians  of  Pilima  took  up  arms 
in  the  common  cause  of  their  country,  to  put  down 
the  odious  domination  of  the  Spaniards. 

While  these  events  were  happening  in  Upper 
Peru,  the  fire  of  the  revolution  again  burst  forth 
in  the  lower  Provinces.    Pinelo,  Munecas,  a  priest. 


65 

the  two  Angulos,  and  Pomakagua,  (an  Indian,) 
were  the  principal  leaders.  The  two  first  were 
victorious  at  La  Paz,  but  at  the  same  time  suffer- 
ed the  greatest  disasters  from  an  infernal  conspi- 
racy. The  European  Spaniards  poisoned  all  the 
springs  of  water  in  La  Paz,  and  undermined  and 
blew  up  a  barrack  of  the  patriots,  killing  300  men. 
Those  who  escaped  this  destruction  were  fired 
with  vengeance,  and  cut  the  throat  of  every  Spa- 
niard in  the  city. 

Pezuela  hastened  to  La  Paz,  when  the  pa- 
triots withdrew  to  Desaguedero  ;  there  he  attack- 
ed and  defeated  them,  by  reason  of  the  superiori- 
ty of  his  force.  \ 

The  Indian  Pomakagua  directed  his  course  to 
Arequipa.  He  bravely  fought  his  way  into  the 
city,  defeated  the  enemy,  and  took  prisoners  the 
commander  in  chief  Picoaga,  the  governor  Mos- 
corso,  and  Lavalle,  and  sent  them  to  Cuzco  to  be 
put  to  death.  The  defeat  of  Pinelo  and  Munecas, 
already  mentioned,  obliged  them  to  retire  to  Cuz- 
co, which  Ramires  and  Pezuela  had  just  evacuat- 
ed to  repair  to  Arequipa,  in  pursuit  of  Pomaka- 
gua. Ramires,  after  repeating  there  the  same  tra- 
gic scenes  which  had  been  recently  acted  at  La 
Paz,  attacked  Pomakagua  near  the  river  Ayavire, 
in  which  battle  this  noble  Indian  exhibited  prodi- 
gies of  valour,  but  the  inferiority  of  his  force  made 
him  the  victim  of  his  enemy.  He  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  sent  to  Cuzco,  where  he  was  execut- 
ed, together  with   the  Angulos  and  Pinelo.     Hii 

I 


Gt> 

head  was  fastened  on  a  pike,  and  Sent  to  Siquani, 
distant  25  leagues  from  CuzCo. 

Of  these  leaders,  the  most  conspicuous  was  Po- 
makagua.     He  was  an  Indian  of  Peruvian  nobility, 
the  Senor  of  the  town  of  Chincero,  near  Cuzco. 
In  the  rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru,  in  1780,  he  took 
part  with  the  king  of  Spain ;  and  for  his  services 
at  this  period,  the  title  of  Brigadier  General  in  the 
regular  army  was  conferred  upon  him,  besides  all 
the  dignities,  privileges,  and  crosses,  of  the  Spa- 
nish court,  and  he  was  confirmed  in  the  Seignory 
of  his  town.     This  Peruvian,  like  all  others  of  his 
race,  was  bred  without  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion ;  he  could  with  difficulty  speak  the  Spanish 
language,   but    he  possessed  strong   and   manly 
sense,  nobleness  of  mind,  and  that  generosity  of 
character,  which  is  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  dis- 
tinguish^ d  birth.     When  he  heard  of  the  revolu- 
tion at  Buenos  Ayres,  he  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  warriors,  who  were  all  Indians  armed  with 
slings,  spears,  and  war-clubs,  (not  then  under- 
standing the  use  of  fire-arms,)  and  repaired  to 
Oruro,  as  the  auxiliary  of  Goyeneche.  Soon,  how- 
ever, he  began  to  think  about  the  object  and  pur- 
pose of  the  war.     He  inquired  what  were   the 
wishes  of  the  Buenos  Ayreans,  as  he  could  not 
read  the  newspapers  which  had  then  just  began 
to  be  published.     He  was  prevented  by  the  Spa- 
nish Chiefs  from  obtaining  correct  information; 
but  a  patriot  spy  found  means  to  make  him  ac- 
quainted with  the  events  which  had  taken  place 
at  Buenos  Ayres :  whereupon  he  immediately  de- 


67 

clared  for  the  patriots,  and  told  his  warriors  they 
had  been  deceived.  He  returned  to  his  native 
town,  where,  assembling  his  people,  he  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  patriots,  and  bravely  fought  for 
the  liberty  of  his  country,  to  which  he  consecrat- 
ed the  remainder  of  his  days. 


68 

LETTER  IX. 

The  convulsions  of  the  interior  of  Peru,  together 
with  the  insurrections  of  the  Pacific  coast,  in  the 
Province  of  Arica,  headed  by  Penaranda  and 
Reyes,  gave  an  opportunity  to  General  Rondeau 
to  advance  to  Peru ;  first  opening  the  way  by  the 
battles  of  Mochare  and  Puesto  Grande.  He  took 
post  at  Potosi,  on  the  left  of  the  enemy,  who  were 
at  Oruro. 

He  made  preparations  to  give  battle  with  great 
advantage,  taking  possession  of  Cochabamba 
which  supplied  him  with  provisions,  and  whose 
inhabitants  had  awaited  his  arrival  with  eager 
impatience.  Rondeau's  plan  of  operations  was 
excellent,  and  displayed  his  great  military  capaci- 
ty. In  order  to  maintain  a  safe  passage  to  Cocha- 
bamba, he  dispatched  a  division  under  Rodriguez, 
to  check  the  enemy's  van-guard  which  was  at 
Veuta  e  Media,  distant  5  leagues  from  Oruro. 

Rodriguez  was  repulsed,  and  Pezuela,  knowing 
the  importance  of  Cochabamba,  made  forced 
marches  upon  Rondeau,  and  before  the  latter 
CMild  take  possession  of  the  town,  obliged  him  to 
fight  the  battle  of  Sipe-Sipe  which  I  have  al- 
ready mentioned.  This  victory,  which  reflected 
honour  on  the  military  capacity  of  Pezuela,  was 
blackened  by  the  butchery  which  was  executed 
by  his  order  upon  the  Cochabambians,  who  were 
waiting  the  arrival  of  the  Patriots  with  triumphal 
arches,  as  they  considered  the  victory  in  their 


69 

hands,  Rondeau  having  at  one  period  of  the  en- 
gagement outflanked  the  enemy's  left  wing,  nearly 
routed  the  right,  and  made  a  severe  impression  on 
the  center  by  his  artillery.  The  result  was,  that 
Cochabamba  was  sacked  by  the  soldiery  a  second 
time.  Rondeau  retired  to  Tupiza,  where  he  fixed 
his  head  quarters. 

The  government  of  Buenos  Ayres  had  sent  to 
his  succour  additional  numbers  of  troops  and  arms, 
but  they  did  not  arrive  in  time  for  the  battle. 
Rondeau,  in  consequence  of  this  defeat,  was  re- 
moved from  command,  and  returned  to  Buenos 
Ayres ;  and  Belgrano  succeeded  him,  who  esta- 
blished his  head  quarters  at  Tucuman. 

Pezuela  was  now  elevated  to  the  Viceroyalty 
of  Peru,  and  displayed  the  energy  of  his  charac- 
ter, and  the  resources  of  his  talents,  by  carrying 
on  active  operations  in  Chili  and  Peru  at  the  same 
time  ;  the  latter  of  which  was  occupied  to  the  nar- 
row pass  of  Volcan,  near  Jujui. 

Serna  succeeded  Pezuela  in  the  command  of 
the  royal  army,  but  with  talents  much  inferior  to 
his.  He  entered  Jujui  with  an  army  of  2000  men ; 
but  was  so  closely  pressed  by  Guemes  and  his 
guerrillas,  that  after  suffering  the  greatest  depri- 
vations and  losses  fom  famine  and  the  sword,  he 
was  obliged  to  retire,  and  abandon  his  hopes  of 
conquest.  From  this  period,  for  two  years,  we 
hear  of  little  more  than  partial  skirmishes  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country,  which  were  attended  with 
various  success. 

The  operations  of  the  army  of  the  Andes  in 


70 

Chili,  pre\  erited  the  patriots  from  carrying  cm  the 
war  with  the  same  vigour  in  Peru ;  but  the  situa- 
tion of  the  royalists  at  present  in  South  America, 
and  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  admonish  us  that 
there  will  soon  be  an  end  put  to  the  general  devas- 
tation. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  detail,  it  clearly  ap- 
pears that  the  people  of  Peru  have  not  merely 
shown  a  disposition  for  independence,  but  have 
well  nigh  sacrificed  themselves  in  the  cause.  In 
every  battle  in  which  they  have  been  engaged  they 
have  fought  with  desperation ;  wherever  the  pa- 
triot army  appeared  they  were  greeted  by  the 
people  with  joy;  the  cruelties  inflicted  by  the 
Spaniards  added  fuel  to  the  flame,  and  the  royal 
troops  every  where  met  with  the  most  determined 
hostility.  But  how  has  it  happened  that  such  fa- 
vourable dispositions  on  the  part  of  the  people  for 
independence,  have  not  been  sufficient  to  put  down 
the  Spanish  authorities  ?  What  are  the  causes  still 
existing  to  impede  a  people  possessing  such  abun- 
dant resources,  in  their  endeavours  to  establish 
their  political  independence?  Wherefore  have 
the  armies  of  the  patriots,  instead  of  gaining  ad- 
vantages over  the  royalists,  and  expelling  them 
from  the  country,  been  on  the  contrary  more  fre- 
quently defeated  ? 

The  solution  of  these  queries  will  be  found  in 
the  civil  and  political  character  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  country,  upon  which  I  am  now  about  to 
enter. 


71 


LETTER  X. 

Upper  Peru,  as  comprehended  in  the  United 
Provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  is  better  considered 
under  its  civil  division,  known  as  the  district  or  au- 
dience of  Charcas.  The  city  of  Charcas,  La  Plata, 
or  Chuquisaca,  was  founded  by  Pedro  Araures, 
one  of  the  Captains  of  Pizarro   in  1538.     In  the 
district,  which  is  near  900  miles  long,  extending 
from  the  Lake  Titicaca  to  Jujui,  there  are  compre- 
hended twenty-one  lesser  Provinces,  as  they  are 
called ;  which  are,  Chicas,  Pacages,  Omazuegos, 
Apolobamba,    Larecaga,    Cica-Cica,  Chulumani, 
Oruro,  Paria,  Caraugas,  Porco,  Chayante,  Pilaya, 
Punabamba,  Tomina,  Atacama,  Lipez,   Yampa- 
raes,  Misque,  Tarija,  Chiquitos ;  and  these  are  in- 
cluded in  the  seven  governments  or  intendencies 
following — Potosi,  Charcas  or  La   Plata,  Cocha- 
bamba,  La-Paz,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  or  Puno, 
Moxos  and  Chiquitos.      These   lesser  provinces 
are  governed  by  sub-delegates,  who  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  governors  or  intcndants  who  reside 
in  the  cities. 

The  population  of  the  district  of  Charcas  or 
Upper  Peru,  amounts  to  1,740,000  souls,  including 
Indians.  The  Indians  alone  amount  to  1,155,000. 
This  population  consists  of  Indians,  creolrs. 
Mestizos,  Cholos,  European  Spaniards,  negroes 
and  mulattos:  and!  shall  speak  of  them  all  in  their 
order. 


72 

The  Indians  of  Peru,  its  first  inhabitants,  are 
very  different  from  savage  tribes.  In  the  ancient 
days  of  the  Peruvian  Monarchs,  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  live  under  equal  laws  and  a  mild  and  pa- 
ternal government.  Their  morality  was  so  pure 
and  simple,  that  it  was  comprehended  in  the  three 
following  principles,  Amma  Sua,  Jimma  Kclya, 
Jlmma  Loolya,  indian  phrases,  meaning,  no  thieves, 
no  sluggards,  no  liars. 

After  their  conquest  by  th«e  Spaniards,  they 
continued  in  their  own  villages,  under  the  go- 
vernment of  a  Cura  Doctineros,  a  Cazique,  and  an 
Alcalde.  They  were  reduced  to  a  perpetual  mi- 
nority, and  sunk  to  the  lowest  state  of  degradation. 
All  who  have  written  concerning  them,  have  given 
a  very  unfavourable  idea  of  their  character.  They 
have  been  represented  as  destitute  of  every  ho- 
nourable sentiment,  of  ordinary  intellectual  ca- 
pacity, and  even  of  the  common  physical  strength 
of  man.  The  reason  of  this  appears  to  be,  that 
all  the  travellers  in  that  country  have  been  Eu- 
ropeans, who  were  utterly  ignorant  of  their  lan- 
guages, who  never  resided  among  them,  never 
held  any  intercourse  or  communication  with  them ; 
and  of  course,  possessed  no  facilities  for  gaining 
their  confidence,  by  which  alone,  can  be  learned 
the  peculiarities  of  national  character  and  the 
resources  and  capacity  of  the  human  mind. 

Robertson  and  Count  Carly,  approximated  the 
nearest  to  the  true  character  of  the  Indians;  but 
their  knowledge  being  principally  founded  upon 
speculation,  must  of  necessity  be  very  imperfect 


73 

and  defective.  Ulloa,  justly  reputed  the  best  tra- 
veller in  South  America,  falls  into  many  errors, 
which  may  be  attributed  to  the  circumstances 
above  mentioned, — his  ignorance  of  their  lan- 
guage, his  short  stay  among  them  as  governor  of 
Huancavelica,  and  to  the  incorrect  information 
which  he  received  from  his  countrymen,  the  Spa- 
niards. Neither  the  u  Viagero  Universal,"  nor  the 
"  Mercurio  Peruano,"  works  published  under  the 
direction  of  the  Spanish  government,  can  be  relied 
upon  as  giving  correct  information  in  relation  to  the 
Indian  character;  although  the  editors  of  the  lat- 
ter, which  is  published  in  Lima,  are  natives  of  the 
country,  well-informed  upon  the  subject,  and  men 
of  distinguished  intelligence.  Among  all  the  wri- 
ters who  have  treated  of  the  Indians,  none  have 
spoken  of  their  attainments  in  the  abstract  sci- 
ences. To  this  subject  I  shall  devote  some  at- 
tention when  1  come  to  speak  of  the  city  of 
Cuzco. 

The  Peruvian  Indians  are  generally  of  mid- 
dle stature,  and  well  proportioned ;  their  ge- 
neral complexion  is  a  copper  colour,  although 
in  the  wanner  regions,  they  arc  as  fair  as  the 
people  of  the  south  of  Europe.  They  have 
long  black  hair,  which  they  wear  loose  on 
their  shoulders,  when  attending  upon  religious 
exercises;  they  have  no  beards;  they  possess 
great  muscular  strength,  which  is  owing  to  their 
temperate  mode  of  life  and  constant  exercise ; 
all  the  heavy  work  of  the  country  being  perform- 
ed by  them  without  the  aid  of  machinery.    They 

K 


74 

will  carry  on  their  shoulders  150  lbs.  weight  of 
every  kind  of  heavy  articles,  after  the  fashion  of 
the  Israelites.      The  magnificent   monuments   of 
antiquity  in  Cuzco,  which   are  built    of  stones, 
some  measuring  from  10  to  15  yards  in  length, 
and  which  were  brought  from  great  distances,  are 
the  work  of  the  Indians,  and  proofs  of  their  great 
muscular  strength;  and  the  grand  temples  and 
structures  of  modern  times,  which  are  built  of 
granite,  were  erected   by  them  without  the  use  of 
machinery.     The   high   roads,  causeways,  aque- 
ducts, bridges,  paintings,  sculpture,  &c.  &c.  are  the 
work  of  their  hands.     Their  food  is  of  the  most 
innocent  and  simple  kind ;  it  consists  of  potatoes, 
milk,  maize,  quinoa,  a  fine  grain,  chunu,  or  dried 
potatoes,  barley,  pepper,  and  vegetables,  dressed 
with  salt,  which  they  use  in  abundance.     They 
eat  a  little  beef.      They  use  freely  a  bitter  herb 
they  call  Coca,  which  they  chew,  as  the  people  of 
this  country  do  tobacco,  and  it  seems  as  indis- 
pensable to  their  comfort.     They  rise  in  the  morn- 
ing before  the  break  of  day,  the  year  round,  and 
go  into  the  field  to  their  daily  work;  some  to  tend 
cattle,  and  others  to  cultivate  the  ground.     They 
sleep  on  the  floor  of  their  cabins,  without  beds. 
They  dress  in  a  short  woollen  frock  and  short 
breeches  or  drawers,  which  are  manufactured  in 
their  own  families ;  they  wear  sandals  similar  to 
those  worn  by  the  Romans ;  their  head  dress  is  a 
woollen  cap,  and  over  it  a  bonnet,  with  a  broad 
brim  to  protect  them  from  the  sun. 

The  dress  of  the  women  is  a  long  woollen  frock, 


frequently  extremely  fine,  and  of  every  variety  of 
colour  to  gratify  female  caprice ;  this  is  fastened 
round  the  waist  with  an  ornamented  girdle,  and 
over  it  they  wear  a  square  piece  of  cloth,  or  shawl, 
which  is  fastened  on  the  bosom  by  a  silver  pin, 
called  toupo,  from  4  to  5  inches  in  length,  flatten- 
ed at  the  head,  and  sometimes  studded  with  gems. 
The  girls  wear  their  dress  higher  than  the  mar- 
ried women.  The  Catholic  rosaries  and  the  cross 
are  always  appendages  to  their  dress.  They,  for 
the  most  part,  live  out  of  the  great  towns,  fearing 
all  white  men  who  do  not  speak  their  language, 
and  who,  too  often,  defraud  and  oppress  them. 
The  Indian  is  mild  and  patient  in  his  disposition, 
and  suffers  every  vexation  without  complaint;  re- 
tired in  his  cabin,  he  finds  himself  happy  when  at 
a  distance  from  the  Spaniards. 

Their  houses  are  constructed  to  suit  the  climate,  of 
a  conic  figure,  with  one  door,  and  without  windows ; 
they  are  built  of  unbaked  brick.  Their  beasts  of 
burden  are  the  Llama  and  the  Ass.  The  Llama  is 
a  slow  montioned  animal,  well  suited  to  the  genius 
of  the  Indian  In  travelling,  the  Indian  slowly  fol- 
lows the  steps  of  his  Llama,  making  his  day's 
journey  of  about  three  leagues.  The  male  and 
female  Indians,  as  they  travel  along  the  roads,  are 
constantly  employed  in  some  work  of  industry, 
making  cords  or  sewing.     They  are  never  idle. 

The  Indians  possess  great  skill  in  agriculture, 
and  particularly  in  irrigation.  In  some  districts, 
water  is  conveyed  in  aqueducts  of  stone,  with 
great   facility,   for   a   distance   of  twenty  mi  Jo. 


76 

They  are  not  subject  to  diseases  like  the  Euro- 
pean Spaniards ;  an  Indian  of  thirty  is  called  a 
boy;  they  are  never  afflicted  with  the  tooth-ache, 
and  never  wear  spectacles.  They  possess  a  pecu- 
liar talent  at  following  the  track  of  their  own  do- 
mestic animals.  If  a  Llama  escapes  from  its 
flock,  its  owner  will  pursue  it,  distinguishing  its 
footsteps  from  those  of  every  other  animal  of  the 
same  species,  for  any  distance  :  they  are  very  fond 
of  dogs,  and  keep  great  numbers — >a  single  Indian 
sometimes  forty.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
fidelity  to  their  masters,  and  preserve  with  great 
care  every  thing  entrusted  to  them ;  they  never 
steal,  are  good  husbands  and  fathers,  know  no 
dissolution  of  the  marriage  bonds,  never  forget 
an  act  of  kindness,  and  are  naturally  generous 
and  hospitable.  But  let  me  ask,  how  does  it  hap- 
pen that  a  race  of  men  possessing  such  excellent 
qualities,  have  never  aroused  themselves  from  the 
miserable  degradation  into  which  they  are  sunk? 
The  solution  of  this  query  is  presented  to  us  in 
the  fact,  that  man  without  liberty,  property,  or 
security,  is  a  mere  machine,  and,  of  all  creatures, 
the  most  wretched.  To  these  miserable  beings 
the  Spanish  government  has  been  worse  than  a 
pestilence;  it  has  stopped  their  progress  in  civil- 
ization, and  kept  them  in  a  state  of  the  most  stu- 
pid ignorance,  and  if  they  are  not  slaves  by  law,, 
they  suffer  all  the  evils  of  the  negroes  of  Africa. 


77 


LETTER  X. 

All  Peru  is  divided  into  curacies  or  parishes ; 
those  included  within  the  United  Provinces  are 
nearly  400  in  number.  Every  parish  contains  a 
small  town,  of  from  4  to  10,000  souls,  de  confession, 
or  adults. 

Among  them  there  are  a  (ew  Spaniards  or  Cre- 
oles, who  possess  large  plantations.  In  the  capital 
towns  the  Creoles  are  more  numerous.  Each  town 
or  parish  is  governed  by  a  catholic  curate,  a 
casique,  and  an  alcalde.  The  first  is  a  spiritual 
chief,  whose  business  is  to  teach  the  Roman  catho- 
lic religion,  and  who  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishop  of  the  diocess;  the  second  is  collector 
of  the  poll,  or  capitation  tax,  which  is  levied  upon 
all  male  Indians  between  18  and  50  years  of  age, 
and  amounts  to  $7,  and  sometimes  $14  to  each 
Indian,  per  annum,  and  is  collected  every  six  months. 
The  third  is  a  judicial  officer.  The  two  last  are 
subject  to  the  sub-delegates,  who  are  the  chiefs  of 
the  lesser  Provinces.  These  officers  have  great 
numbers  of  young  Indians  in  their  service,  who  are 
named  after  the  particular  kind  of  service  in  which 
they  are  employed ;  such  as  Pongo,  Mitani, 
Mulani,  &c.  Pongo  meaning  those  who  take  care 
of  cooking  utensils,  spoons,  &c. — Jllnlatii,  those  who 
tend  the  mules.  Besides  these  servants,  they  have 
others  who  are  employed  as  letter-carriers,  under 
the  name  of  Chasquis,  or  Canaris,  meaning  rapid 
travellers,  and  they  will  indeed  travel  with  won- 


78 

deri'ul  rapidity.  They  fasten  their  letters  to  their 
body  with  straps,  provide  themselves  with  a  bag 
of  coca,  some  dried  beef,  corn,  pepper,  and  a  dol- 
lar in  cash,  and  set  forward,  and  finish  their  journey 
in  the  allotted  time,  in  spite  of  every  obstacle.  I 
have  frequently  known  them  travel  50  leagues  in 
four  days.  Their  routes  are  always  direct  across 
the  country,  and  they  will  traverse  up  and  down 
the  lofty  mountains  of  the  Andes  with  the  same 
rapidity  as  on  the  plains.  There  are  some  towns 
whose  inhabitants  are  distinguished  for  this 
trait;  particularly  Charasajnj  and  Consaaata  on 
the  north  of  La  Paz,  .  near  the  Amazon,  in 
the  Province  of  Larecaja.  These  pedestrians 
cross  with  most  astonishing  rapidity  the  great 
deserts  of  the  country.  The  whole  population 
of  these  districts  are  remarkable  for  their  ac- 
tivity and  enterprise.  They  are  botanists,  phar- 
maceutists, and  physicians,  and  possess  in  a  won- 
derful degree  all  the  accomplishments  of  quacks. 
They  know  from  practical  observation  the  medici- 
nal qualities  of  the  various  plants,  roots,  gums, 
aromatic  resins,  and  other  drugs  which  are  found 
in  great  abundance  on  the  mountains  and  Cordil- 
leras of  that  region.  After  collecting  together  a 
quantity  of  these  drugs,  they  start  in  companies  of 
from  six  to  eight  for  the  most  remote  parts  of  the 
country,  and  cross  the  continent  from  one  extreme 
to  the  other,  visiting  in  their  route  Lima,  Quito, 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  all  the  principal  cities  of  the 
country.  They  always  travel  on  foot,  with  their 
boxes  of  drugs  on  their  shoulders,  fastened  witjh 


79 

Straps  around  their  breasts,  together  with  their 
provisions.  They  are  often  absent  from  their 
homes  from  10  to  14  months,  and  return  loaded 
with  the  products  of  every  clime. 

In  Buenos  Ayres  these  travelling  doctors  are 
called  Yune-gain-ious,  and  in  Peru  Kal-ya-wy-a$,  In- 
dian names  denoting  the  countries  from  which  they 
procure  their  drugs*.. 

As  the  Peruvian  Indians  can  neither  read  nor 
write,  and  have  never  been  in  situations  to  deve- 
lope  their  mental  capacity,  we  can  only  estimate 
their  character  in  this  respect  by  an  intimate  com- 
munication with  them.  The  faculties  of  the  mind, 
like  those  of  the  body,  require  to  be  exercised, 
that  the  extent  of  their  capacity  may  be  known. 
The  European  Spaniards  cannot  form  a  correct 
judgment  of  their  character,  being  utterly  Ignorant 
of  their  customs  and  their  language.  The  Peru- 
vian grammars,  which  I  have  before  spoken  of, 
were  composed  by  German  Jesuits.  The  Span- 
iards look  upon  the  Indians  as  being  scarcely  ra- 
tional, and  they  thoroughly  despise  them.  They 
do  not  know,  nor  can  they  appreciate,  the  vigour 
of  their  phrases,  nor  the  peculiar  softness  and 
sweetness  of  their  expressions.  Some  philanthro- 
pic Curas  and  Creoles,  born  and  bred  among  them, 
when  they  have  been  able  to  gain  their  confidence 
so  as  to  understand  their  sentiments  and  feelings, 
have  declared  that  they  found  in  them  a  spirit  noble 
and  elevated,  and  capable  of  great  achievements. 

*  The  English  orthography  has  been  adopted  by  (he  Translator  in  writing 
lh»  Peruvian  words  used  ?n  these  Letters. 


I  will  here  present  a  specimen  of  their  familiar 
conversation,  which  can  with  difficulty  be  trans- 
lated from  the  native  language  on  account  of  it* 
peculiarly  soft  idiom. 

"  You  are  my  countryman,'' — said  an  Indian  to 
his  Creole  master — "  1  saw  you  born,  on  my  shoul- 
ders have  I  borne  you  through  all  your  infancy." 
(It  is  the  custom  in  Peru  for  servants  to  carry  their 
master's  children  upon  their  shoulders)    "  Your 
language  I  taught  you,  I  labour  for  you,  my  hands 
have  grown  hard  in  building  your  houses,  cultivat- 
ing your  fields,  and  tending  your  flocks,  without 
any  object  but  your  benefit.     You  see  my  clothes, 
which  are  the  manufacture  of  my  wife ;  the  coca 
which  you  give  me,  is  the  greatest  gift  I  receive 
from  you.     Tell  me  why  the  men  of  your  com- 
plexion  treat  us  so  ill  ?    Those  Chapetones  pooka 
Jcoonfcas,  alwrays  order  us  about  with  great  severity, 
they  make  us  travel  with  their  beasts  of  burden, 
they  beat  us  with  whips,  and  goad  us  with  spurs 
when  we  do  not  keep  pace  with  the  trot  of  their 
horses.     Indio,  Alzado,  Tupac  Amaru  !  these  are 
the  names  they  give  us,  they  cover  us  with  igno- 
miny and  contempt.   Do  they  imagine  we  have  no 
sense  of  shame  ?  The  Tata  Curas  tell  us  that  there 
is  one  God  who  created  all  mankind,  and  that  all 
are  redeemed  by  his  blood.     Why  then  is  there 
so  great  a  difference  between  us  ?     Is  it  because 
the  God  who  created  us,  does  not  think  that  we 
are  his  creatures  ?  I  observe  besides,  that  all  who 
govern  you  and  us  come  from  Spain,  and  that  you 
stand  very  much  in  fear  of  them.     Tell  me,  have 


81 

you  not  learned  in  the  books,  the  mode  of  govern- 
ing ?  I  think  there  are  among  you  some  learned 
men  who  can  enlighten  our  dark  understandings. 
I  never  heard  those  foreign  adventurers  speak 
kindly  to  us,  and  so  far  as  I  can  judge,  they  want 
you  to  explain  to  them  the  will  of  the  King.  Tell 
me,  why  does  not  that  King  make  you  our  govern- 
ors ?  How  does  he  believe  that  he  can  govern  us 
by  men  who  cannot  understand  any  thing  we  say  ? 
I  think  it  would  be  more  natural  to  make  govern- 
ors of  you,  who  have  the  same  dress  as  the  Span- 
iards, and  speak  the  same  language.  This  shows 
fear  of  you." 

This  is  a  specimen  of  the  feelings  of  the  Peru- 
vian Indian  towards  the  Creoles,  his  countrymen, 
whom  he  serves  with  the  greatest  fidelity  and  kind- 
ness. All  the  domestic  service  in  the  Peruvian 
families,  is  performed  by  the  young  male  and  fe- 
male Indians,  who  very  readily  acquire  great  ex- 
pertness  in  their  business.  Their  honesty  is  ex- 
emplary, and  although  in  every  house  there  are 
exposed  many  gold  and  silver  pieces  of  furniture 
in  common  use,  they  are  never  known  to  pilfer  any 
thing.  Money  is  delivered  to  them  by  their  mas- 
ters uncounted,  so  great  is  the  confidence  in  their 
honesty ;  and  they  never  defraud  them.  An  Indian 
is  not  allowed  to  trade  to  an  amount  of  $50  with- 
out the  intervention  of  his  chief,  nor  undertake 
any  considerable  business  without  his  permis- 
sion. This  perpetual  inferiority  keeps  them  in 
the  lowest  state  of  degradation  and  misery ;  and 

L 


82 

with  peculiar  propriety  may  they  exclaim  in  the 
la  iguage  of  the  Prophet,  "  Our  inheritance  is 
turned  to  strangers ;  our  houses  to  aliens ;  we 
are  orphans  and  fatherless,  our  mothers  are  as 
widows ;  we  have  drunken  our  water  for  money, 
our  wood  is  sold  unto  us." 


83 

LETTER  XL 

Among  the  evils  suffered  by  the  Indians,  and 
which  has  been  a  source  of  much  unhappiness  to 
them,  as  well  as  to  all  South  America,  is  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  which  was  introduced 
among  them  by  the  Spaniards.  This  religion,  in 
countries  where  it  predominates  or  is  connected 
with  the  government,  is  widely  different  from  the 
same  religion  as  it  appears  in  the  United  States 
of  North  America.  Instead  of  being  employed  as 
all  religions  ought  to  be,  in  directing  the  morals, 
purifying  the  heart,  and  restraining  the  vices  of 
the  people,  it  is  so  prostituted  in  Spanish  coun- 
tries, that  it  has  become  nothing  but  a  mass  of 
superstitious  ceremonies,  and  the  instrument  of 
avarice  and  oppression. 

And  in  every  country,  where  there  is  an  exclu- 
sive religion  which  is  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment, no  matter  what  it  is,  it  will  necessarily  be 
intolerant,  and  become  a  most  tremendous  cala- 
mity to  the  people.  And  it  may  be  questioned, 
whether  in  any  community  the  purity  of  morals 
can  be  preserved,  without  difference  of  religious 
sentiment,  and  those  useful  checks  and  ba- 
lances which  the  emulation  of  sectarians  is  cal- 
culated to  produce,  in  adding  animation  and 
strength  to  public  virtue.  If  the  reformation  of 
Luther,  to  which  is  attributable  in  a  great  de- 
gree the  progress  of  light  and  liberty  in  the  world, 
is  not  a  complete  proof  of  tjhis  truth,  the  practical 


84 

lesson  afforded  by  .the  United  States,  leaves  n© 
donbt  that  religious  liberty  and  the  rivalship  of 
different  sects,  is  the  best  means  of  maintaining  in 
their  purity  the  morals  of  the  people. 

Unhappily  for  South  America,  the  most  intole- 
rant of  all  religions  fell  to  her  lot,  which  made 
penal  every  attempt  to  investigate  its  character, 
and  consequently  the  hand  of  reform  could  never 
be  applied.  An  exposition  of  this  religion  in 
South  America  would  fill  a  volume.  I  shall  only 
speak  of  it  in  that  point  of  view  in  which  it  is 
connected  with  the  government,  and  as  it  exists 
in  Peru. 

The  religion  is  taught  to  the  Indians  by  the 
Curas  doctrineros,  or  Parrocos,  who  are  appointed 
in  the  first  instance  by  the  Diocesan,  and  after- 
wards confirmed  in  their  appointment  by  the  Vice 
Patron  Real,  who  is  either  the  Viceroy  or  President 
of  the  District. 

The  Cura  doctrinero  receives  a  salary  from  the 
royal  treasury,  called  synodo,  and  besides,  other 
emoluments,  or  obvenciones.  The  office  of  a  Cura  is  a 
dignity  in  the  Church.  It  is  also  very  lucrative, 
as  each  one  has  not  less  than  $4000  annually. 
To  this  office,  and  to  that  of  canon,  Creoles  are 
generally  appointed.  The  bishops,  who  are  three 
in  number,  in  Peru,  including  the  Archbishop,  and 
four  in  Rio  de  la  Plata,  are  generally  Europeans. 
They  have  annual  incomes  of  from  40  to  60,000 
dollars,  varying  according  to  the  amount  of  tithes. 
These  ecclesiastics,  before  obtaining  their  offi- 
ces, are    required  to  take  an  oath  to    preserve 


83 

these  dominions  under  the  Castilian  crown,  anil 
consequently  their  first  care  is  to  impress  up- 
on the  minds  of  the  people  a  blind  obedience  to 
the  king,  who  is  called  the  4  Lord's  anointed,'  and 
«  Vice  God  in  the  worlds     The  Bishops,  who  are 
learned  men,  are  generally  employed  in  writing 
homilies  for  the  church  for  the  same  object,  and  the 
late  Archbishop  of  Charcas,  San  Alberto,  a  man 
of  great  disinterestedness  and  charity,  and  of  ex- 
traordinary eloquence,  employed  the  power  of  his 
pen  in  composing  a  Royal  Catechism  for  the  use  of 
his  diocess,  in  which  he  exerted  himself  to  the  ex- 
tent of  his  abilities,  to  inculcate  the  doctrine  of 
passive  obedience ;  and  certainly  the  Brachmans  of 
India  could  not  exceed  him  in  their  efforts  to  es- 
tablish this  slavish  doctrine.     This  catechism  has 
been  re-published  in  Rome,  and  received  the  ap- 
probation of  his  Sanctity  the  Pope,  who  ordered 
it  to  be  translated  into  Italian.     This  was  one  of 
the   best  of  the  Peruvian   Bishops:    as  for   the 
others,  they  have  generally  been  men  of  infamous 
characters.   * 

The  instruction  which  is  given  to  the  Indians  by 
the  Curas,  is  to  teach  them  the  prayers  of  the  Ro- 
man Church  which  are  said  before  mass,  and  to 
attend  mass  on  the  Sabbath.  On  this  day  they 
preach  to  them  one  quarter  of  an  hour  some  ab- 
stract doctrine,  which  the  Indians  cannot  under- 
stand. They  urge  them  particularly,  when  sick, 
to  call  in  the  confessor,  and  also  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  be  baptized : — the  first,  not  to  lose  the 
profits  of  the  burial ;  and  the  second,  to  ascertain 


86 

the  number  of  children  that  are  born,  of  which 
an  exact  account  is  kept,  in  order  to  know  the 
amount  of  the  poll  tax.  The  census  is  taken  eve- 
ry five  years,  and,  for  the  reason  above  mentioned, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  accurate.  This  motive  of 
avarice  is  the  reason  why  the  Indians  are  persuad- 
ed to  marry  young. 

The  Sabbath  is  a  great  market  day,  when  the 
people  transact  all  their  business  with  the  Indians, 
who  come  from  a  great  distance  to  attend  mass. 
At  the  same  time,  justice  is  administered  to  them, 
and  the  poll  tax  collected. 

Among  the  Curas  are  many  Europeans  and  oth- 
ers, who  do  not  understand  the  Peruvian  lan- 
guage, and  who  procure  their  parishes  by  the  re- 
commendation of  the  Viceroy,  or  some  Spanish 
chief.  Although  the  canon  law  requires  that  the 
parish  priests  shall  understand  the  language,  and 
reason  certainly  demands  the  same  thing,  still  his 
Majesty  dispenses  with  that  knowledge  in  the  qua- 
lifications of  the  Curas,  and  there  are  therefore 
preachers  and  hearers  who  cannot  understand 
each  other !  It  is  sufficient  for  the  Cura,  if  his 
hearers  understand  these  words,  Obvencion  kollkata 
appamooukeechoo  ? — "  Have  you  brought  the  mo- 
ney of  the  obvencionesT''  The  obvenciones  are  one 
of  the  modes  of  obtaining  money,  which  is  prac- 
tised under  the  Roman  religion.  They  include 
benedictions,  masses,  festivities  of  Christ,  of  the  Vir- 
gin, and  the  Saints,  processions,  marriages,  fune- 
rals, and  souls  in  purgatory.  The  Curas  and  friars 
inculcate,  with  the  most  ardent  zeal,  the  doing  of 


87 

good  works  here,  in  order  to  be  happy  hereafter.- 
These  good  works  consist  in  the  festivities  before 
mentioned,  and  saying  masses.  Every  mass  costs 
two  dollars ;  if  chaunted,  the  price  is  double.  At 
Buenos  Ayres  it  is  but  one  dollar.  There  is  a 
royal  tariff,  (jSrencel  de  Derechos^)  which  regulates 
the  rates  of  these  religious  exercises. 

The  Indians,  although  ignorant  of  the  princi- 
ples of  this  religion,  join  in  these  festivities  with 
great  alacrity.  They  principally  consist  in  masses 
chaunted  with  music,  before  the  patron  saint. 
The  chaunters  and  musicians  are  Indians,  who 
perform  their  parts  with  much  skill,  being  excel- 
lent musicians,  and  chaunting  Latin  from  memory 
without  understanding  a  word.  At  the  time  of 
mass,  the  Indian  stands  before  the  altar,  covered 
with  an  old  cloth  belonging  to  the  Virgin  or  the 
saint,  holding  a  flag  in  his  hand ;  and  at  the  end 
of  the  ceremony,  the  priest,  covering  the  Indian's 
head  with  his  mantle,  says  over  him  the  beginning 
of  the  Evangelist  of  St.  John — "  In  principio,  &c." 
This  ceremony  brings  the  Cura  from  25  to  100 
dollars,  according  to  the  dignity  of  the  saints,  and 
the  solemnity  of  the  mass.  In  these  festivities 
there  is  sometimes  dancing  in  the  public  streets 
before  the  processions,  in  honour  of  the  saint.  Of 
this  I  shall  speak  hereafter.  They  have  also  pri- 
vate balls  in  their  cabins,  which  are  kept  up  with 
great  festivity,  hilarity,  and  zeal,  the  Indian  be- 
lieving that  he  is  performing  an  acceptable  ser- 
vice to  his  God.  On  these  festive  occasions  they 
sometimes  become  intoxicated  with  brand  v.  which 


88 

they  use  at  no  other  time.  The  usual  drink  of 
the  Indian  is  Chicha,  a  fermented  beverage  resem- 
bling beer,  which  is  made  from  Indian  corn  and 
quinoa.  In  the  province  of  J^uzgg.  the  use  of  this 
liquor  is  as  general  as  that  of  porter  in  England, 
and  it  has  been  the  common  drink  of  the  Indians 
since  the  times  of  the  Incas ;  it  was  then  called 
Akkaa. 

Besides  the  festivities  in  honour  of  the  saints  in 
heaven,  there  are  others  for  souls  in  purgatory. 
The  second  of  November  in  every  year  is  the  day 
appointed  by  the  Romish  Church  for  that  festivi- 
ty. On  that  day.  hundreds  of  monks  and  priests 
inundate  all  the  cities,  villages,  towns,  and  coun- 
try chapels,  in  search  of  responsos,  which  are  "  Pa- 
ter nosters,"  said  to  liberate  souls  from  purgatory. 
This  service,  which  occupies  but  a  moment,  costs 
six  pence,  and  although  the  price  is  so  trifling,  it 
is  a  source  of  large  income  to  the  priests,  as  the 
people  universally  order  responsos  for  their  de- 
ceased relatives  and  friends.  It  is  indeed  a  cheap 
service  to  produce  such  wonderful  benefits  as  li- 
berating souls  from  the  terrible  torments  of  pur- 

igatory! 

On  this  day  also,  sumptuous  dinners  for  the 
whole  people  are  served  up  in  great  profusion  in 
the  churches,  "  in  commemoratione  omnium  fidelium 
dcfunctorum" 

In  this  fair,  the  king  has  a  part  in  the  sale  of 

('XwZ^with  which  he  is  plentifully  supplied  by  his 
Holiness  the  "  Vicar  of  Christ."  These  bulls  are 
billets  or  drafts  of  pardon,  not  only  for  the  sins  of 


89 

the  living,  but  of  the  dead.  Such,  for  instance,  is 
the  bula  de  difuntos,  or  bull  for  the  dead,  which  is 
paid  for  according  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the 
deceased.  The  living  have  the  bulls  de  cruzaday 
de  iacticinios,  de  carne,  and  de  composition.  The 
first,  which  had  its  origin  in  the  crusades,  is  to 
gain  the  graces  and  indigencies  of  the  Church, 
the  meaning  of  which  I  never  understood;  the 
second,  to  eat  cheese,  eggs,  and  milk,  in  Lent; 
and  the  thirds  to  retain  every  thing  obtained  by 
theft  or  fraud.  The  Indians  pay  the  first  contri- 
butions without  reluctance,  nay  even  of  their  own 
accord,  but  the  bulls  are  collected  by  force.  It 
is  different  with  the  Spaniards,  who  receive  the 
bulls  with  alacrity,  considering  them  an  acquisi- 
tion of  great  value.  The  Indians,  who  are  in  this 
respect  the  wisest,  cannot  conceive  that  a  piece 
of  paper  will  be  of  any  use  to  them  in  the  other 
world.  This  fair  of  bulls,  which  is  a  branch  of 
public  revenue,  has  in  latter  times,  fallen  into 
contempt  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and  has  been  abolish- 
ed, and  the  people  of  that  city,  who  ten  years  ago 
believed  in  their  efficacy,  now  laugh  at  the 
imposture.  General  Artigas  returned  to  the 
commissioner  de  cruzadcu,  at  Buenos  Ayres,  their 
bulls,  saying,  "  11  is  people  wanted  arms,  not 
bulls!" 

In  the  dances  which  are  customary  on  those 
festivities,  the  Indians  are  dressed  to  imitate  ani- 
mals, such  as  apes,  horses,  lions,  &c.  and  gi- 
ants, in  the  Indian  language  "  Taraska"  which 

M 


§0 

afe  statues  or  figures  of  the  dimensions  of  a 
monster;  these,  are  sometimes  5  or  6  yards  in 
height.  Within  this  monster,  some  stout  Indian 
enters,  and  dances  to  music  of  bells  and  tambou- 
rines. Others,  in  companies  of  15  or  20,  and  a  like 
number  of  girls,  with  the  seecoo,  a  wind  instru- 
ment composed  of  many  pipes,  similar  to  those 
of  the  Pandean  Bands,  will  play  upon  the  tam- 
bourine, blow  the  seecoo,  and  dance  all  at  the 
same  time  :  the  girls  singing  catches  and  dancing 
figures  like  contra-dances :  and  dressed  with  a 
profusion  of  fine  silks  and  ribbons,  of  the  most 
striking  colours,  with  bits  of  looking  glasses  in  their 
hair,  fine  feathers,  beads,  &c.  and  the  men  with 
large  feathers  in  their  hats.  The  noise  of  all  this 
dancing,  of  the  musical  instruments,  and  of  the 
ringing  of  the  large  church  bells,  is  excessive,  and 
in  this  way  they  go  before  the  Saint  in  the  proces- 
sion. 

In  Cuzco,  where  the  Indians  are  richer,  and 
preserve  many  of  the  customs  of  their  ancient  no- 
bility, these  dances  are  more  grand,  and  they  wear 
in  their  dresses  many  massy  pieces  of  silver,  and 
precious  stones. 

The  Indians  have  also  their  dramas,  or  theatri- 
cal representations,  written  in  metre,  with  much 
purity  and  eloquence,  in  their  own  language.  The 
subject  of  these  pieces  always  alludes  to  the  con- 
quest, and  the  triumphs  of  the  christians  over  the 
heathen.  They  contain  the  supplications  of  A.ta- 
hualpa  for  his  life,  from  Pizarro,  which  are  so 


91 

pathetic  that  the  Indians  never  witness  the  exhibi- 
tion without  shedding  tears. 

On  the  eve  of  the  festivities,  which  is  called  ves- 
pers, there  is  an  universal  illumination,  and  the 
Indians  sally  forth  mounted  on  horses  or  mules, 
bearing  torches  in  their  hands,  to  the  public 
square,  to  witness  the  fire  works,  which  are  exhi- 
bited in  great  splendour.  The  art  of  Piroctenia, 
or  making  these  fire  works,  is  understood  in  great 
perfection  among  the  Peruvians.  There  are  seve- 
ral towns  in  which  no  other  branch  of  industry  is 
carried  on.  The  fires  are  made  with  all  the  va- 
riety of  colours  known  in  Europe,  and  the  fire 
works  of  Vauxhall  in  London,  and  of  Tivoli  in 
Paris,  are  not  superior  to  those  in  Peru.  The  use 
of  rockets  is  very  general  upon  these  festivities, 
and  the  mode  of  preparing  them  is  well  under- 
stood. 

From  their  religious  festivities  I  now  pass  to 
their  funerals.  The  tax  levied  upon  these  solem- 
nities is  most  painful  to  the  Indians,  and  the 
most  barbarous  avarice  is  displayed  in  its  exac- 
tion. The  sum  which  the  Indian  is  obliged  to 
pay  is  in  proportion  to  his  wealth,  varying  from 
$5  to  %  100.  His  property  is  narrowly  investigated, 
and  the  violence  of  oppression  unites  to  aggra- 
vate the  afflictions  of  a  man  who  has  lost  a  father, 
a  brother,  or  a  wife.  I  have  seen  the  poor  In- 
dian weep  till  his  heart  was  well  nigh  broke  at 
the  levying  of  this  unjust  contribution.  But  the 
European  Curas,  whose  hearts  are  harder  than 
the  gold  they  covet,  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  wail- 


92 

ing  of  the  widow,  whose  children  are  taken  irom 
her,  to  pay  this  tax.  A  religion  so  abused  and 
transformed  into  a  systematic  mode  of  thieving 
and  robbery,  is  a  calamity  more  dreadful  than  a 
pestilence.  Who  can  believe  that  the  religion  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  is  founded  on  the  most  sub- 
lime charity,  should  have  been  converted  into  an 
engine  of  such  horrible  oppression  ? 

The  Spaniards  and  white  inhabitants  of  the 
cities  and  towns,  ridicule  the  simplicity  of  the 
Indians,  regretting  their  gross  superstition,  and  the 
many  frauds  which  are  practised  upon  them  ;  but 
these  same  persons  are  not  less  superstitious  than 
the  Indian  they  ridicule,  for  they  perform  the 
same  acts  from  different  motives  ;  from  the  haugh- 
tiness of  their  characters,  and  the  ostentation  of 
their  riches. 

The  days  of  public  solemnity  under  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  are  those  of  Corpus  Chris  ti,  the 
Holy  Thursday,  and  of  the  titular  saint  of  every  city, 
days  which  are  appointed  by  royal  authority.  For 
celebrating  the  day  of  the  Corpus  Christi,  there 
are  erected  sumptuous  altars,  triumphal  arches, 
and  the  streets  through  which  the  host  passes, 
are  covered  with  fine  carpets,  and  strewed  with 
flowers.  The  altars  are  very  high,  and  built  in  a 
canic  form,  the  upper  part  is  covered  with  splen- 
did looking-glasses  from  Germany,  artificial  flow- 
ers made  of  paper  and  silk,  and  beautiful  fea- 
thers. The  lower  part  is  surrounded  with  steps 
leading  to  the  table  of  the  sacrament ;  and 
which  are  filled  with  saints  and  angels  dressed  in 


St3 

the  richest  silks  and  laces,  and  profusely  decorat- 
ed with  jewels ;  the  whole  disposed  with  great 
symmetry  and  taste,  and  by  artists  who  are  edu- 
cated to  the  business.  Every  thing  rich  and  rare 
is  employed  to  beautify  these  altars  and  trium- 
phal arches,  which  display  the  most  gorgeous 
spectacle  to  the  eve ,-  and  at  the  same  time  exhi- 
bit the  immense  riches  of  the  couutry. 

On  the  eve  of  this  festivity,  the  altars  and  tri- 
umphal arches  are  hung  with  blazing  chandeliers 
of  great  beauty  and  value,  and  the  streets  are 
crowded  with  people  to  gaze  upon  them.  The 
cities  where  these  exhibitions  are  the  most  pom*- 
pous,  are  Cuzco,  La  Paz,  and  Potosi.  In  Cuzco 
the  weather  is  so  fine,  that  the  lights  are  always 
suspended  in  the  open  air.  The  altars  are  esti- 
mated at  $700,000  each,  and  are  erected  by  the 
annual  contributions  of  the  people,  the  ladies 
lending  their  richest  jewels  to  decorate  them. 
The  king  also  has  his  altar,  but  it  is  the  poor- 
est. Before  the  procession  the  titular  saints 
of  every  church  are  carried,  which  are  from  twelve 
to  twenty-five  in  number  in  every  city.  These 
saints  are  all  of  the  ordinary  size  of  the  human 
figure,  except  St.  Christopher,  who,  as  the  legends 
tell  us,  was  a  giant ;  and  who  is  generally  made 
about  twelve  feet  high.  They  are  all  richly 
dressed  and  covered  with  gold  and  silver;  they 
are  placed  on  pedestals  of  massy  silver,  each 
weighing  1000  oz.  at  least;  and  which  is  borne  on 
the  shoulders  of  from  40  to  00  Indians.     In  the 


94 

midst  of  the  saints  are  carried  the  Virgins  of  Car- 
men,  Mercedes,  and  Rosario,  which  attract  much 
public  devotion.  The  first  is  under  the  care  of 
the  Carmelite  nuns;  the  two  others,  of  the  Domin- 
ican and  Mcrcedarian  friars,  of  whom  there  are 
legions  in  Peru. 

It  will  not  be  foreign  to  my  purpose  to  show 
how  this  wealth  is  accumulated.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  monastic  institutions  of  this  coun- 
try, is  the  work  of  piety,  as  it  is  called,  of  rich 
men,  who  bequeath  their  property  to  this  ob- 
ject for  the  good  of  their  souls.  This  property 
is  made  productive,  being  vested  in  houses  and 
lands,  yielding  a  rent  which  amounts  to  5  per 
cent.  Another  principal  source  of  wealth  to  these 
institutions,  are  the  bestowing  of  alms  and  the 
indigencies  of  the  Pope. 

The  nuns  are  entirely  dead  to  the  world,  and 
no  person  can  see  them  after  their  initiation, 
which  takes  place  at  the  age  of  eleven.  All  their 
worldly  consolation  is  to  augment  their  riches, 
which  are  enjoyed  in  common,  and  employed 
only  to  improve  and  extend  their  establishments. 
Every  nun,  upon  entering  a  convent,  is  required 
to  bring  with  her  as  her  dower,  $4000,  which  is 
put  into  the  common  fund;  and  besides,  they  are 
obliged  to  provide  a  contingent  fund  to  defray 
their  extraordinary  expenses.  These  dowers, 
by  being  rendered  productive,  have  necessarily 
greatly  augmented  their  property.  This  wealth 
is  employed  in  various  ways,  in  rebuilding 
churches,  forming  gold  and  silver  utensils  for  the 


95 

uses  of  religion,  and  making  altars,  which  are  of 
pure  silver.  The  body  of  the  patron  saint  or 
virgin  is  ornamented  with  diamonds  and  pearls, 
collected  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  so  pro- 
fusely, that  the  body  is  literally  covered  all  over 
with  them,  and  on  the  head  is  a  crown  of  gold, 
studded  with  brilliants  and  pearls  of  the  highest 
value.  There  are  also  two  or  three  sets  of  this 
jewelry  for  the  saint,  for  changes  on  particular 
occasions.  These  jewels,  when  once  consecrated 
to  these  holy  purposes,  can  never  be  converted  to 
any  other  use ;  and  for  this  reason  their  accumu- 
lation is  so  great,  that  it  is  sufficient  to  maintain 
armies,  or  defray  the  expenditures  of  a  nation. 
Such,  however,  has  been  the  superstition  on  the 
side  both  of  the  patriots  and  the  royalists,  during 
the  present  revolution,  that  no  part  of  the  proper- 
ty of  the  churches  has  been  touched. 

On  a  visit  which  I  made  to  the  nunnery  of  Con- 
cihidas  in  La  Paz,  I  was  shown  two  boxes  of  four 
feet  and  a  half  long,  and  two  feet  broad,  filled 
with  doubloons.  Indeed  the  cash  and  bullion 
which  are  buried  in  those  nunneries,  is  incalcu- 
lable. 

Besides  all  the  abovementioned  sources  of 
wealth,  every  nun  has  her  own  peculiar  trade,  and 
fabricates  the  most  neat  and  beautiful  works  in  silks 
and  laces  that  can  be  made  by  the  hands  of  wo- 
men ;  these  articles  command  a  ready  sale  among- 
this  luxurious  people,  and  the  proceeds  are  appro- 
priated to  increase  the  common  fund. 


96 

As  property  is  not  a  necessary  qualification  for 
the  profession  of  a  monk  or  friar,  it  is  generally 
embraced  by  the  lower  classes  of  society.  In 
their  monastic  institutions  every  thing  is  provid- 
ed for  their  support,  and  being  the  masters  of 
money,  they  become  infamous  in  their  conduct. 
Jn  their  contests  for  the  high  places  of  the 
Church,  they  conduct  in  the  most  scandalous 
manner,  sometimes  resorting  to  the  sword  to  set- 
tle their  disputes,  and  it  not  unfrequently  happens 
that  the  soldiery  are  ordered  out  to  quell  their 
bloody  affrays. 

The  immense  wealth  acquired  in  the  modes  I 
have  mentioned,  is  squandered  by  the  monks  in 
the  most  disgraceful  manner,  in  every  kind  of  de- 
bauchery and  gross  sensuality.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing this  profusion  of  the  monks,  the  church- 
es are  full  of  riches.  The  jewels  and  decora- 
tions of  each  of  the  virgins  of  Mercedes  and  Rosa- 
rio,  are  estimated  to  be  worth  $200,000  at  least, 
all  which  are  the  donations  of  believers.  I  have 
this  estimate  from  their  major  domos,  or  keepers, 
and  have  no  doubt  it  is  correct.  This  mass 
of  riches  is  exhibited  in  all  its  gorgeous  array, 
on  the  public  days  before  mentioned,  when  these 
celestial  personages  go  to  make  their  court  to 
God. 

These  exhibitions  are  of  great  solemnity  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  other  cities  of  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  but  not  of  the  same  splendid  character  as 
those  in  the  cities  of  Peru.  Their  monastic  insti- 
tutions are  poor ;  'the  monks  have  less  influence 


97 

and  less  property.  The  churches  are  poor  also, 
and  their  sacred  utensils  are  rarely  made  of  gold 
and  silver,  and  if  we  except  the  cathedral  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  is  a  magnificent  edifice,  there  are  no 
churches  in  that  country  to  be  compared  with 
those  in  the  cities  of  Peru. 

The  description  of  the  Indians  of  Upper  Peru 
is  equally  applicable  to  those  of  Lower  Peru,  as 
they  all  have  the  same  language,  customs,  religion, 
and  government.  It  is  only  to  be  added  that  the 
Peruvian  Indians  are  prohibited  the  use  of  fire 
arms,  which  prohibition  has  been  rigidly  enforced 
since  the  rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru. 

The  Indians,  not  being  familiar  with  the  use  of 
arms,  are  very  much  afraid  of  them,  as  they  are 
described  to  have  been  at  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest. At  the  beginning  of  the  present  revolution, 
they  would  fall  to  the  ground  on  the  discharge  of 
cannon.  This  occurred"  in  the  army  of  Goyeneche, 
and  made  him  fearful  of  his  success,  but  this  fear 
has  gradually  worn  away,  and  they  have  now  be- 
come expert  in  the  use  of  the  musket,  and  excel- 
lent soldiers.  They  will  march  great  distances 
with  uncommon  expedition;  they  go  to  battle  with 
coolness,  and  receive  an  attack  without  losing 
their  position ;  and  if  they  cannot  stand  a  charge 
of  bayonet  like  regular  disciplined  troops,  they 
will  receive  with  firmness  the  fire  of  musketry. 
It  is  observed  that  they  are  never  defeated  ex- 
cept with  the  bayonet.  They  are  not  expert 
horsemen  )ike  the  Buenos  Ayreans,  and  of  course 
their  cavalry  is  indifferent. 

N 


98 

It  is  a  fact,  that  in  the  present  revolution,  when- 
ever the  patriots  have  been  defeated,  it  has  been 
done  by  the  troops  of  the  country.  The  royal 
troops  of  Monte  Video  commanded  by  excellent 
officers,  have  been  defeated  by  the  patriots,  in 
the  last  action  in  Chili,  the  majority  of  the  royal 
troops  were  Europeans,  and  they  wero  vanquished. 

So  it  is,  that  these  timid  Indians  of  Peru,  who 
are  ignorant  of  the  technical  words  of  military 
command,  are  converted  into  the  best  troops,  pos- 
sessing serenity  of  soul,  and  that  sobriety  and 
temperance  so  necessary  in  the  character  of  sol- 
diers. If  they  are  now  ignorant  of  their  rights, 
and  the  native  dignity  of  their  character,  and  are 
made  blind  instruments  in  the  hands  of  their  ty- 
rants; at  some  future  day,  when  the  light  of  know- 
ledge shall  break  in  upon  them,  they  will  burst 
asunder  the  bonds  which  now  shackle  them,  and. 
learning  their  rights,  they  will  be  able  to  protect 
them.  The  Spanish  government  are  now  afford- 
ing precisely  the  very  means  which  will  eventuate 
in  the  final  overthrow  of  their  domination  in  South 
America.  J3y  protracting  the  present  revolution, 
they  are  teaching  the  art  of  war  to  their  colonists, 
as  Napoleon  did  to  the  potentates  of  Europe, 
making  them  accomplished  soldiers,  inuring  them 
to  the  dangers,  privations,  and  fatigues  of  war ; 
and  the  same  soldiers  who  now  march  with  victo- 
rious arms  to  Lima,  to  Salta,  to  Tucuman,  will 
ere  long  extend  their  glorious  triumphs  through 
the  isthmus  of  Panama,  planting  the  standard  of 
liberty  on  the  towers  of  Mexico  and  Gautimala, 


99 

Much  better  would  it  have  been  for  the  Spanish 
government  to  have  acknowledged  the  indepen- 
dence of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  which  was  proposed  to 
them  in  1815,  in  order  to  have  preserved  the  re- 
mainder of  their  colonies,  than  to  teach  the  use  of 
fire  arms,  and  the  science  of  war,  to  men  in  whose 
breasts  ambition  and  the  love  of  military  glory 
had  never  been  kindled ;  but  which,  having  been 
kindled,  will  never  be  extinguished. 


100 


LETTER  XII. 

The  Creoles,  or  Spanish  Americans,  are  divided 
into  two  classes ;  the  first  are  nobles,  who  are 
descended  from  the  conquerors  ;  the  second,  are 
descended  from  the  officers  of  the  government 
and  private  adventurers  who  have  come  to  the 
country  since  the  conquest.  Among  the  former 
are  Counts,  Marquises,  Mayorasgos  or  Barons,  and 
Knights  of  different  military  orders,  and  these  of 
course  hold  the  first  rank  in  society.  They  are 
all  possessed  of  independent  fortunes,  which  they 
inherit  from  their  ancestors.  The  education  of 
both  classes  is  generally  superior  to  that  of  their 
fathers,  but  the  education  of  the  nobles  is  very  ir- 
regular. These  nobles  are  not  numerous  in  Rio 
de  la  Plata,  but  the  contrary  is  the  fact  in  Low 
Peru ;  in  Lima  a  great  part  of  the  population  is 
composed  of  this  class.  The  oldest  sons  succeed 
to  the  title  and  estate,  and  the  younger  sons  are 
Curas  and  canons,  filling  the  various  stations  in 
the  army  and  the  church.  For  these  stations  more 
learning  is  requisite,  and  they  are  generally  much 
better  educated  than  their  older  brothers.  The 
sons  of  this  class  ordinarily  pursue  the  profession 
of  their  fathers ;  they  are  lawyers,  clergymen, 
Mineros,  or  proprietors  of  mines,  and  owners  of 
Haciendas,  or  large  plantations  and  establishments 
for  cultivating  Coca  and  making  wine,  brandy,  &c. 
and  on  which  there  are  several  Indian  families 
attached  to  the  soil,  and  to  the  personal  service 
of  the  landlord. 


101 

There  are  commonly  from  50  to  200  of  these 
families  on  one  Hacienda,  who  subsist  from  the 
soil  by  their  own  labour,  and  who  are  obliged  to 
work  for  their  landlord  whenever  he  requires  their 
service.  The  young  Indians  of  these  families  are 
their  domestic  servants.  A  Hacienda  of  Coca  in 
La  Paz  is  worth  from  60  to  $70,000 ;  these  estates 
produce  immense  incomes  to  their  proprietors. 
The  Creoles  are  also  owners  of  fine  country  seats, 
to  which  they  are  very  much  attached,  and  which 
are  provided  with  every  convenience  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  a  luxurious  master. 

The  profession  of  the  Law  is  considered  the 
most  honourable,  and  is  the  most  lucrative.  The 
lawyers  of  Peru  amass  large  fortunes  in  a  few 
years'  practice,  and  the  profession  is  a  stepping 
stone  to  public  office.  The  Clergy  in  this  country 
sometimes  practice  the  law,  the  study  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical law  forming  a  part  of  their  education, 
and  both  lawyers  and  clergymen  are  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  profession.  The  lawyers  display  great 
ability  in  drafting  memorials  or  pleadings,  and 
eloquence  in  speaking  before  the  judicial  tribu- 
nals. The  want  of  printing  deprives  the  world 
of  their  speeches,  some  of  which  are  in  no  wise 
inferior  to  those  of  the  most  celebrated  lawyers 
of  France.  In  their  writing  and  speaking  they 
adopt  the  French  manner,  as  they  are  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  literature  of  that  country. 

The  Curas,  as  I  have  before  stated,  have  large 
incomes,  and  consequently  live  in  the  most  splen- 
did manner,  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  youns: 


102 

men  of  fortune,  of  the  first  rank  and  consideration 
in  the  community,  will  readily  fall  into  all  manner 
of  immoderate  pleasures  and  dissipation,  more  es- 
pecially as  they  are  condemned  to  perpetual 
celibacy.  This  barbarous  law,  which,  warring 
against  the  law  of  nature,  plunges  all  who  are 
subject  to  its  operation  into  the  most  shameful 
disorders,  is  a  fruitful  source  of  vice  and  im- 
morality among  the  people.  This  law  of  celiba- 
cy, which  -was  dictated  by  the  wickedness  and 
corrupt  ambition  of  the  Roman  court,  is  the  cause 
of  many  calamities  to  Catholic  countries;  yet  so 
blind  are  the  people  of  South  America  in  their 
prejudices,  that  although  they  well  know  its  inju- 
rious operation,  they  cherish  it,  with  its  host  of 
abominations !  South  America  will  for  ever  remain 
ignorant  and  enslaved,  so  long  as  the  freedom  of 
religious  opinion  is  restrained,  and  the  institutions  *> 
of  the  friars,  and  the  law  of  clerical  celibacy  sup- 
ported. At  Buenos  Ayres,  the  abolition  of  this 
law  has  been  attempted,  and  it  was  demonstrated 
that  the  Pope  was  only  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  could 
not  interfere  with  the  internal  economy  of  the 
church,  which  possessed  the  right  of  electing  its 
own  pastors.  But  the  clergy  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
who  are  well  aware  of  these  truths,  and  who  in 
their  hearts  laugh  at  the  canon  laws,  have  not 
had  sufficient  resolution  to  effect  a  reformation. 
At  La  Paz,  on  the  contrary,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
revolution,  the  Churches  took  the  first  step  of 
electing  their  own  bishops,  grounding  the  mea- 
sure upon  the  primitive  doctrines  of  the  Church. 


103 

As  this  revolution  was  unfortunate  in  its  issue,  the 
measure  failed  ;  but  it  teaches  us  that  the  people 
began  to  think  of  the  abolition  of  these  establish- 
ments, which  are  so  much  opposed  to  civil  liber- 
ty and  the  happiness  of  the  human  race. 

The  Creoles  are  possessed  of  an  independent 
spirit ;  and  they  hate  and  despise  the  Spaniards : 
they  form  by  far  the  most  enlightened  portion  of 
the  community.  Their  master  passions  are  the 
love  of  knowledge,  and  a  luxurious  and  splendid 
mode  of  life,  and  they  spare  no  pains  to  furnish 
themselves  with  books,  sumptuous  furniture,  and 
articles  of  luxury.  And  therefore,  there  are  car- 
ried to  Peru  the  most  splendid  furniture  of  every 
kind,  from  the  first-rate  workshops  of  France,  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Italy.  Gold  and  sirver  are  em- 
ployed profusely  in  fitting  out  the  trappings  of  their 
horse  equipage,  and  in  furnishing  their  houses ;  the 
vessels  in  the  most  common  use,  of  the  kitchen 
and  bed-chamber,  being  made  of  silver.  Their 
houses  contain  a  drawing-room  and  dining-room, 
furnished  with  clocks,  chandeliers,  looking-glas- 
ses, &c.  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  a  room 
for  a  library.  The  drawing-rooms  of  the  no- 
bility are  covered  with  velvet,  embroidered 
with  gold ;  they  have  tables  of  solid  silver,  and 
I  heir  window  curtains,  which  are  of  velvet,  are 
fringed  with  gold  lace.  Their  tables  are  covered 
with  a  great  profusion  of  dishes,  cooked  after  the 
French  and  Spanish  mode.  They  eat  abundance 
of  sweetmeats,  made  from  the  fine  fruits  of  the 
country.     At  the  tables  of  the  nobility  there  are 


104 

always  a  great  number  of  guests,  called  M  commm- 
saHs."  This  mode  of  life,  which  is  owing  to  the 
generous  and  hospitable  character  of  the  Creoles, 
who  are  born  to  independent  fortunes,  often  de- 
generates into  wasteful  prodigality  and  dissipa- 
tion. They  are  inveterate  gamblers,  winning 
and  losing  a  moderate  fortune  in  a  single  night. 
In  the  interior  cities,  where  there  are  no  thea- 
tres or  public  places  of  amusement,  at  which 
the  wealthy  and  the  idle  can  resort  to  kill  time, 
they  fly  to  the  card  table  to  rid  themselves  of 
ennui,  that  tormenting  foe  to  the  children  of  for- 
tune in  the  South.  Cards  are  the  usual  instru- 
ments of  this  vicious  sport,  which  has  always  been 
encouraged  by  the  Spanish  government,  as  they 
enjoyed  the  monopoly  of  their  sale. 

The  ladies  of  Peru  dress  in  a  very  splendid 
manner,  wearing  the  most  fine  cambrics  and  laces 
of  Flanders,  and  other  rich  stuffs  of  Europe ;  their 
wardrobes  are  filled  with  these  costly  articles. 
They  are  profuse  in  the  use  of  perfumery,  which 
is  manufactured  in  great  delicacy  and  perfec- 
tion by  the  nuns.  But  what  principally  attracts 
their  attention  is  jewelry.  The  European  la- 
dies when  they  arrive  here,  present  a  singular 
contrast  to  the  ladies  of  the  country.  The  Peru- 
vian ladies  cover  themselves  with  jewels ;  every 
lady  generally  wears  two  thousand  dollars  worth, 
at  least,  such  as  rings,  pearl  necklaces,  combs 
studded  with  brilliants,  finger  rings  of  gold  and 
brilliants,  and  rosaries  of  pearls  and  diamonds. 
This  renders  the  difference  very  striking,  and  the 


105 

Peruvians  call  the  European  ladies,  "  Chapetona 
latonada" — copper  women. 

The  same  difference  is  observable  between  the 
ladies  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Peru.  The  men  of 
fortune  of  Buenos  Ayres  are  generally  merchants, 
who  cannot  indulge  their  wives  and  daughters  in 
such  extravagant  luxury.  There,  property  is 
more  equally  distributed  among  the  people ;  and 
there  is  more  civilization  and  refinement  among 
them,  which  have  resulted  from  their  foreign 
commerce,  and  their  intercourse  with  strangers; 
the  ladies  are  more  graceful,  possess  greater  vi- 
vacity of  manners,  character,  and  genius.  There 
is  the  same  difference  in  their  modes  of  dress. 
The  ladies  of  Buenos  Ayres  dress  after,  the  Span- 
ish fashion,  covering  their  heads  with  shawls,  al- 
though since  their  commerce  with  the  English, 
they  begin  to  wear  bonnets,  and  adopt  the  Lon- 
don and  Parisian  modes.  In  Peru,  although 
they  dress  generally  after  the  Buenos  Ayrean 
fashion,  still  the  peculiar  dress  of  the  country  is 
preserved.  This  is  a  kind  of  hooped  and  full 
pleated  petticoat,  trimmed  with  gold  and  silver, 
beautiful  laces,  and  festoons  of  flowers  and  rib- 
bons. A  petticoat  contains  about  twelve  yards  of 
cloth,  and  is  called  faldellin.  They  wear  small 
silk  shawls  and  hats  :  it  is  a  very  expensive  mode 
of  dress.  And  besides  this,  they  have  other  dress- 
es peculiar  to  the  church,  to  which  they  go 
almost  every  day.  These  are  of  black  velvet,  or 
other  stuff  of  that  colour,  trimmed  with  gold  and 
silver  also,  and  fashioned  to  suit  the  solemnity  of 

O 


706 

the  day;  they  do  not  wear  hats,  but  large  lace  or 
silk  shawls  on  their  heads.  The  ladies  of  Peru 
expend  a  great  deal  of  money  on  their  dress,  and 
are  under  the  necessity  of  providing  many  ward- 
robes to  contain  their  numerous  suits  of  ap- 
parel. 

In  Rio  de  la  Plata  there  are  three  colleges,  two 
at  Cordova,  and  the  other  in  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
there  are  at  present  two  more  building.  There 
is  also  an  university  in  Cordova,  in  which  are 
taught  Latin?  Philosophy,  Rhetoric,  Theology,  and 
at  present  Mathematics.  All  these  branches  are 
taught  in  the  most  irregular  manner.  The  theolo- 
gy is  nothing  more  than  that  science  in  name ;  it 
consists  wholly  in  the  study  of  the  papish  divines. 
In  Peru,  there  are  three  universities,  one  at  Cuz- 
co,  another  at  Cbarcas,  and  the  third  in  Lima. 
There  are  also  seminaries,  as  they  are  called,  in 
which  particular  branches  are  taught,  such  as  the- 
ology, philosophy,  and  sacred  rhetoric,  as  the  educa- 
tion is  for  the  church.  The  sacred  oratory  is  of  the 
most  brilliant  kind,  as  eloquence  is  much  esteem- 
ed. On  all  the  festivities  of  the  saints  there  is  a  ser- 
mon preached,  the  price  of  which  is  from  50  to  $100. 
This  is  a  piece  of  rhetoric  formed  after  the  best 
French  models,  which  are  much  studied.  It  is 
not  uncommon  to  hear  in  the  churches  of  Peru 
specimens  of  pulpit  eloquence  equal  to  the  splen- 
did effusions  of  Massillon  and  Bossuet.  An  elo- 
quent preacher  attracts  much  attention,  and  the 


107 

palm  of  eloquence  is  contended  for  among  the 
clergy  with  great  zeal. 

There  is  an  academy  of  lawyers  at  Charcas, 
where  two  years  attendance  is  requisite  for  ad- 
mission to  the  bar.  To  this  school,  young  men 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  every  part  of  the  country, 
repair  to  study  the  civil  law,  and  to  procure  cer- 
tificates that  they  are  masters  of  their  profession. 
The  city  of  Charcas  is  a  seat  of  learning,  like 
Oxford  in  England.  In  it  there  are  an  university, 
two  colleges,  an  academy,  and  the  audience,  or 
supreme  tribunal  of  justice,  in  which  all  the  causes 
arising  within  the  district  are  tried,  and  it  is  con- 
sequently filled  with  students  and  lawyers :  there 
are  at  least  500  of  the  latter  residing  in  the  city. 
This  place  can  boast  of  some  gentlemen  of  dis- 
tinguished literary  attainments,  who  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  foreign  books,  which  are  procured 
there,  notwithstanding  all  the  prohibitions  of  the  In- 
quisition, but  which  are  sold  at  very  high  prices. 
Among  the  professional  men,  there  are  canons 
enjoying  from  5  to  $10,000  annual  income,  and 
lawyers,  who  earn  a  great  deal  of  money.  These 
persons  are  well  acquainted  with  French  litera- 
ture, reading  and  admiring  Voltaire  like  the  citi- 
zens of  Paris.  Salinas  and  Terrazas,  two  clergy- 
men, are  distinguished  for  their  literature. 

At  Lima,  where  the  population  and  wealth 
are  greater,  and  the  latter  more  equally  di- 
vided, there  is  likewise  more  intelligence,  and  there 
is  also  a  school  of  medicine  in  very  good  order. 
Unanue,  very  well  known  in  Europe  by  his  lite- 


108 

rary  and  medical  productions,  is  a  resident  of  this 
city.  In  Peru  medicine  is  but  little  understood, 
and  there  are  a  great  many  quacks.  At  Buenos 
Ayres  also,  I  believe  the  professors  of  medicine 
are  not  above  mediocrity.  But  the  revolution  has 
given  a  new  impulse  to  every  branch  of  learning, 
and  there  are  now  established  academies,  in  which 
are  taught  mathematics,  languages,  and  drawing ; 
and  it  is  natural  to  conclude,  that  the  progress  of 
all  useful  knowledge  will  be  rapid  among  this 
people,  when  they  shall  enjoy  the  advantages  of  a 
flourishing  foreign  commerce. 


109 


LETTER  XIII. 

The  Mestizos  are  descendants  of  whites  and  In- 
dians, and  form  the  third  class  of  the  population 
of  Peru.  They  are  generally  possessed  of  moder- 
ate fortunes ;  they  carry  on  the  internal  commerce 
of  the  country,  and  are  the  superintendants  of  the 
great  possessions  of  the  men  of  wealth.  Their 
education  is  generally  limited  to  reading  and  writ- 
ing, although  they  have  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  and 
are  anxious  to  obtain  a  liberal  education.  They 
are  distinguished  for  the  vivacity  of  their  intellect, 
and  those  few  who  are  well  educated,  are  superi- 
or to  all  the  other  classes.  They  are  more  attach- 
ed to  the  Creoles  than  to  the  Europeans,  and  differ 
very  little  from  them ;  and  although  their  education 
is  irregular,  they  supply  the  deficiency  by  the 
quickness  of  their  parts.  Their  dress  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Creoles  or  Spaniards. 

Of  this  class,  have  been  the  leaders  of  the  revo- 
lution in  Peru,  the  Angulos,  and  Penaranda,  who 
evinced  talents  and  courage,  but  were  unfortunate 
on  account  of  the  little  influence  which  they  pos- 
sessed among  their  countrymen. 

The  Cholos  are  the  descendants  of  Mestizos  and 
the  indians.  They  have  little  or  no  education, 
and  can  scarcely  speak  the  Spanish  language. 
Their  complexion  is  darker  than  either  of  the  pre- 
ceding classes,  and  more  agreeable  and  expres- 
sive; with  small  but  piercing  black  eyes,  and 
small  beard.     Their  dress  is  a  short  sailor-jacket 


no 

or  round  about,  and  breeches,  without  stockings ; 
and  with  a  square  piece  of  cloth  like  a  shawl, 
worn  over  the  shoulders,  crossed  on  the  breast, 
and  one  end  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder. 

The  women  dress  after  the  fashion  of  the  Creole 
ladies,  in  fine  coloured  woollens,  instead  of  silks, 
without  bonnets,  covering  their  heads  with  shawls. 
The  different  ranks  of  society  in  this  country  may 
always  be  known  by  their  dress.  The  Cholo  wo- 
men are  the  chamber  maids  and  nurses  of  the 
wealthy  Creoles  and  Spaniards.  The  men  are 
generally  the  mechanics  of  the  country,  and  very 
apt  and  expert  in  tbeir  business.  They  are  won- 
derful imitators  of  every  thing  they  see,  and  fabri- 
cate the  coarse  cloths  of  woollen,  cotton,  and  flax 
of  the  country,  understanding  the  art  of  dying,  and 
of  making  gold  and  silver  leaf,  which  are  articles 
of  great  profit  and  demand.  They  are  miners, 
and  are  equally  skilful  in  this  as  in  every  other 
department  of  industry.  At  Potosi  the  miners 
are  called  Kaachas,  of  whom  I  shall  speak  when  I 
treat  of  Potosi  and  the  mines.  They  carry  on  their 
work  without  any  proper  tools,  using  old  and  bro- 
ken scissors,  knives,  &c.  But  the  genius  of  this 
class  is  principally  displayed  in  sculpture  and 
painting.  In  these  arts  they  have  executed  some 
specimens  not  at  all  inferior  to  the  productions 
of  the  Italian  masters.  I  would  not  hazard  this 
assertion,  not  being  either  a  professor  or  an  ama- 
teur, if  I  did  not  find  the  same  opinion  supported 
by  two  celebrated  European  authorities  :  the  au- 
thor of  an  "  Account  of  the  European  settlements  in 


Ill 

America'"  a  work  attributed  to  the  pen  of  the  cele- 
brated Burke, — and  Mons.  Fresier,  who  travelled 
in  South  America.     For  myself  I  can  say,  that  if 
the  perfection  of  painting  and  sculpture  consists 
in  truth  of  representation,  and  those  are  the  best 
which  copy  nature  the  closest,  and  present  to  the 
eye  the  most  striking  images,  I  can  not  hesitate  to 
declare  that  1  have  seen  some  specimens  of  sculp- 
ture and  painting  atCuzco  and  Potosi,  not  inferior 
to  any  I  saw  in  the  Museo  de  Napoleon  in  the  Louvre 
at  Paris,  or  in  any  of  the   numerous  collections 
which  1  visited  in  London.     In  particular  I  will 
refer  to  an  equestrian  statue  of  Santiago  in  Cuzco, 
which  was   the  work  of  a  Cholo  named  Coosee- 
Coosee.  The  statue  represents  St.  James  on  horse- 
back,  with  a  drawn  sword  killing  Indians.     The 
Spaniards  say  that  St.  James  appeared  in  Cuzco 
to  kill  Indians,  as  he  did  in  Spain  to  kill  Moors ; 
and  the  first  thing  shown  to  a  stranger  on  visiting 
this  city,  is  the  street  through  which  this  apostle 
rode  into  town.     This   statue  is   certainly  most 
beautifully  executed  :  indeed  it  is  impossible  that 
any  thing  of  the  kind  can  surpass  it.    The  horse  is 
in  every  respect  as   beautiful  as  the   Venetian 
horses  which  I  saw  on  the  gate  of  the  Thuilleries 
in  Paris,  which  are  inferior  to  none  in  the  world  ; 
the  noble  animal  is  represented  as  rearing  and 
plunging  forward,   with   his   veins   swollen   with 
blood,    his   nostrils    distended,    and    an    Indian 
resisting  and  sustaining  him  upon  his  right  arm : 
it  is  so  natural  and  so  fine,  that  its  beauty  and 
effect  cannot  be  described. 


112 

To  these  talents,  the  Cholos  unite  great  courage, 
hardihood  of  character,  and  the  immoderate  love 
of  pleasure.  They  make  the  finest  soldiers,  mani- 
festing great  activity  of  body,  and  serenity  of  soul 
in  battle.  They  are  fond  of  music;  the  guitar 
is  their  favourite  instrument,  and  they  indulge 
themselves  in  frequent  serenades  at  night  in  the 
streets. 

The  Cholos  are  very  fond  of  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, and  bull-baiting.  They  have  great  strength 
and  agility  of  body,  and  delight  in  fighting  wild 
beasts.  In  the  year  1801,  there  arrived  in  Lima 
a  company  of  equestrian  performers ;  of  whom 
the  principal  was  a  Swede,  formerly  of  Astley's 
theatre,  of  London ;  his  arrival  was  announced 
in  Peru  as  a  most  wonderful  phenomenon ;  the 
people  could  not  believe  how  horses  could  be 
taught  to  perform  on  a  theatre,  and  some  shrewdly 
suspected  that  the  devil  had  an  agency  in  the 
thing.  It  is  common  for  the  ignorant  to  attribute 
every  thing  which  they  cannot  understand  to 
some  supernatural  power,  as  the  stupid  monks 
of  St.  Germain  looked  upon  the  puppet  shows 
of  Charles  V.  which  he  exhibited  to  them  in  his 
retirement  there,  as  the  work  of  some  demon. 

It  was  necessary  for  the  equestrians  to  obtain 
the  express  permission  of  the  king,  to  proceed 
into  the  interior,  to  exhibit  their  performances. 
They  at  length  arrived  at  Cuzco,  and  their  first 
performance  astonished  every  body,  when  the 
young  Cholos  began  to  imitate  them,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  they  could  perform  all  the  feats  of  the 


113 

equestrians,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon  their 
exhibitions,  as  all  the  streets  were  filled  with  per- 
formers. 

The  Cholos  display  the  same  serenity  and  ac- 
tivity in  the  bull  feasts  of  the  country  as  in  war. 
Bull-baiting  is  a  common  diversion  in  Peru,  as 
in  all  the  Spanish  dominions,  and  the  Cholos  par- 
ticularly delight  in  it,  taking  an  active  part  in  the 
performance.  At  Buenos  Ayres  and  Lima  there 
are  regular  built  theatres  or  circusses  for  the  ex- 
hibition. Unhappily  for  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
the  revolution  has  not  yet  been  able  to  extinguish 
this  barbarous  and  demoralizing  diversion,  which 
was  introduced  into  the  country  among  all  their 
other  customs,  by  the  Spaniards,  although  at  pre- 
sent the  exhibitions  are  attended  only  by  the  low 
people.  The  place  of  performance  is  circular, 
constructed  after  the  manner  of  the  Roman  am- 
phitheatres. Indeed,  this  is  a  Roman  diversion, 
and  it  may  be  remarked,  that  no  modern  nation 
has  so  carefully  preserved  the  customs  of  ancienj 
Rome  as  the  Spaniards,  for  upon  them  Christian- 
ity does  not  seem  to  have  made  much  impression. 

The  performances  open  by  a  fierce  bull  ap- 
pearing in  the  arena.  The  £rst  athleter  receives 
the  furious  beast  on  horseback,  with  a  pike  of 
three  yards  in  length,  with  which  he  stabs  him  in 
the  head  and  neck  to  irritate  him  to  greater  fury; 
the  beast  foaming  at  the  mouth,  and  bellowing  in 
a  most  frightful  manner.  Afterwards,  seven  or 
eight  men  enter  on  foot,  with  small  sticks  loaded 
with  rockets,  which  are  discharged  at  the  bull.    A 

P 


114 

quarter  of  an  hour  is  thus  spent  in  horrid  combat, 
when  a  man  enters  with  a  large  sword  to  dispatch 
the  half  dead  animal.  In  these  sports  men  and 
horses  are  not  unfrequently  slain.  Sometimes  the 
Cholos  mount  astride  of  the  bull,  and  goad  him 
with  spears,  at  the  same  time  playing  upon  the 
guitar,  and  they  will  steadily  and  firmly  maintain 
their  position  as  well  as  if  mounted  on  horseback, 
notwithstanding  the  furious  and  desperate  plunges 
of  the  tormented  animal. 

What  would  not  such  men  as  these,  if  properly 
instructed,  be  able  to  accomplish !  In  the  present 
revolutionary  war,  the  Cholos  have  always  been 
found  in  the  patriot  ranks,  fighting  for  the  liberties 
of  their  country. 

At  Cuzco,  it  is  customary  for  the  Alcaldes,  on 
their  election,  to  treat  the  people  with  some 
public  diversion  at  their  own  expense,  during  the 
three  days  before  Lent,  which  is  called  the  Car- 
nival. These  diversions  consist  principally  in 
Bull-baiting.  The  bulls  are  dressed  in  the  most 
gaudy  manner,  and  one  is  always  covered  with 
dollars,  which  are  strung  on  cords  and  hung 
around  the  body  of  the  animal.  To  this  diver- 
sion succeed  sumptuous  entertainments  and 
splendid  balls.  The  cost  of  these  diversions  is 
at  least  %  1 0,000  to  each  Alcalde.  This  is  the  only  of- 
fice to  which  Creoles  are  eligible,  and  it  is  much 
sought  for. 


115 


LETTER  XIV. 


The  European  Spaniards  come  next  in  order. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  revolution,  the 
number  of  this  class  in  Buenos  Ayres  was  about 
3000,  which  was  one  twentieth  of  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  the  city.  In  Peru  there  are  probably 
between  7  and  8000,  but  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
the  precise  number,  as  no  census  is  ever  taken. 

Of  these,  many  come  out  as  officers  under  the 
government;  others  as  private  adventurers,  who 
accumulate  large  fortunes  by  a  rigid  economy, 
and  often  by  intermarriage  with  the  daughters  of 
the  wealthy  merchants  and  planters  of  the  coun- 
try. The  most  stupid  and  ignorant  Spaniard  is 
preferred  to  the  Creoles,  who  are  called  lazy  and 
gamblers.  They  hold  exclusively  all  the  lucra- 
tive offices,  and  enjoy  the  favour  and  protection 
of  the  government,  and  monopolize  all  the  foreign 
commerce ;  they  are  continually  in  contention 
with  the  Creoles,  and  they  mutually  hate  and  des- 
pise each  other.  They  are  warmly  and  stub- 
bornly attached  to  their  native  country,  and  in 
the  present  revolution  they  have  frequently  burst 
asunder  the  bonds  of  natural  affection  and  conju- 
gal love ;  fathers  separating  from  their  sons,  and 
husbands  from  their  wives.  All  their  education 
consists  in  reading,  writing,  and  the  elements  of 
arithmetic ;  and  their  religion  is  a  blind  and  bi- 
gotted  devotion  to  Popery. 

The  Negroes  are  comparatively  an  insignificant 


116 

portion  of  the  population  of  Peru.  They  are  prin- 
cipally slaves,  and  are  owned  more  from  ostenta- 
tion than  use.  They  follow  their  masters  and 
mistresses  in  rich  dresses  to  church,  and  to  pub- 
lic amusements.  They  are  not  so  much  an  arti- 
cle of  commerce  in  the  interior  of  Peru,  as  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  Lima,  and  Moqueguea ;  but  when 
once  introduced  into  a  family,  they  regularly  de- 
scend from  father  to  son.  On  the  Pacific  coast, 
from  Arica  to  Lima,  slaves  are  numerous,  and  on 
the  sugar  plantations,  in  the  breweries,  and  manu- 
factories, they  are  treated  with  great  severity ;  to 
send  a  negro  to  Moqueguea,  is,  in  his  imagination, 
to  send  him  to  the  infernal  regions. 

The  Mulattoes  are  not  numerous ;  they  are  ge- 
nerally free,  and  of  bad  character.  They  are 
much  addicted  to  thieving;  are  sycophantic  in 
their  manners,  and  very  submissive  and  obse- 
quious to  the  whites.  Their  occupation  is  gene- 
rally in  the  fields  and  mines.  The  prisons  of  the 
country  are  very  commonly  tenanted  by  these 
persons,  while  an  Indian  is  rarely  seen  in  them. 
In  Lima  and  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  the  mulattoes 
differ  from  those  of  the  interior,  being  better  edu- 
cated, and  possessed  of  considerable  property. 

The  enumeration  of  casts  which  I  have  given, 
will  be  found  to  differ  from  that  of  the  celebrated 
Humboldt,  as  we  treat  of  different  provinces  of 
the  country.  The  population  of  Buenos  Ayres,  of 
Mexico,  and  Peru,  is  very  dissimilar. 


117 

Thus  was  Peru  situated  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  revolution  in  Buenos  Ayres,  which  dissolved 
the   ties  of  moral  union   that  held  together  the 
heterogeneous  and  discordant  elements,  of  which 
the  population  of  that  country  was  composed,  and 
each  class  was  left  to  follow  the  bent  of  its  own 
inclinations.     The  hostilities  of  men  so  different- 
ly situated,   have   necessarily  been   violent  and 
bloody,  and  have  plunged  this  unhappy  country 
into  the  horrors  of  civil  war.     The  first  steps  of 
the  revolution,  as  rapid  as  they  were  grand  and 
imposing,  paralyzed  the  energies  of  the  Spanish 
authorities,  until  tht^  memorable  battle  of  Guaqui 
occurred,  to  re-animate  their  hopes.     The  aristo- 
crats, the  nobility,  the  Bishops  and  high  clergy,  the 
officers  of  government  and  Spaniards,  ranged  them- 
selves on  the  side  of  the  King ;  while  the  inferior 
classes  clung  with  avidity  to  the  cause  of  the  coun- 
try.    The  revolution  destroyed  at  once  the  colo- 
nial system,  and  invited  to  the  enjoyment  of  equal 
rights  and  the  privileges  of  freemen,  the  degraded 
classes,  inspiring  them  with   enthusiasm  and  vi- 
gour, and  animating  them  in  the  glorious  pursuit 
of  liberty.  The  Indians,  likewise,  who  found  them- 
selves elevated  to  a  sphere   of  which  they  had 
heretofore  no  conception,  were  filled  with  astonish- 
ment at  the  new  order  of  things,  the  nature  of 
which  they  could  not  comprehend  ;  and,  as  might 
naturally  bo^,  expected,  when  the  full  tide  of  liber- 
ty poured  suddenly  among  that  ignorant,  biggotted 
and  half-civilized  people,  they  were  thrown  into 
confusion,  and,  although  the  proper  medium  would 


118 

undoubtedly  have  been  to  have  introduced  them 
to  the  gradual  enjoyment  of  the  rights  of  freemen, 
yet  it  was  deemed  just  to  admit  them  at  once  to 
participate  in  the  sovereignty,  and  to  invite  them 
to  the  celebration  of  a  national  congress.  To 
this  new  impulse,  which  pervaded  every  breast, 
were  united  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  public 
papers,  the  writings  of  the  philosophers  and  states- 
men of  Europe,  which  were  translated  into  the 
Spanish  language,  and  which  caused  that  mental 
intoxication  so  natural  to  us  all  on  the  first  peru- 
sal of  new  and  pleasing  truths. 

The  Cochabambians  and  Tarijinos,  who  are 
principally  Mestizos  and  Cholos,  abandoned  their 
fertile  fields  and  happy  homes  for  the  hardships 
and  hazards  of  war,  becoming  valiant  soldiers  and 
firm  patriots ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  checks  of 
adversity  which  they  experienced,  was  their  vi- 
gour redoubled.  The  people  of  La  Paz,  of  Ari- 
quipa,  of  Arica,  of  Guamanga,  and  Cuzco,  were 
not  indifferent  to  the  voice  of  liberty,  but  suffer- 
ed adversity  equally  severe,  and  generally,  wher- 
ever the  Mestizos  and  Cholos  were  most  numer- 
ous, there  did  the  arms  of  the  King  suffer  the 
greatest  reverses. 

The  enemies  of  the  revolution,  who  were  of  the 
superior  classes,  although  less  numerous,  possessed 
a  powerful  influence,  which  proceeded  from  many 
considerations.  They  saw  the  fabric  of  their  wealth 
and  power  undermined,  and  they  consequently  took 
part  with  the  Spanish  government.  To  their  physic- 
al force  they  added  the  moral  power  of  wealth,  offi- 


119 

cial  station,  and  distinction  in  the  church.  In  par- 
ticular, have  the  high  clergy  and  the  monks,  whom 
the  people  are  accustomed  to  regard  with  reve- 
rence, and  to  listen  to  with  submissive  awe,  been 
active  agents  in  obstructing  the  progress  of  the 
revolution,  persuading  the  people  that  the  system 
of  independence  which  they  wished  to  establish 
was  contrary  to  the  laws  of  God.  The  bishops 
also,  who  are  princes  in  fortune  and  power,  to 
whom  the  people  kneel  as  to  divinities,  have  been 
the  deadliest  foes  of  the  revolution :  the  bishops 
of  Cordova  andSalta  were  found  in  conspiracy  with 
the  Spaniards,  and  the  bishop  of  La  Paz,  Santa,  a 
man  of  the  most  depraved  morals,  who  can  only  be 
compared  to  the  monsters  of  Rome  in  the  10th  and 
11th  centuries,  took  the  command  of  a  battery 
against  the  patriots  at  Yrupana,  and  afterwards 
excommunicated  all  whom  he  did  not  kill. 

These  superior  classes  beheld  in  the  revolution 
the  loss  of  their  princely  fortunes,  and  trembled 
while  they  saw  a  population  which  had  slumbered 
in  ignorance  so  long,  starting  at  once  into  the 
light  of  liberty  and  knowledge ;  and  that  intellec- 
tual cultivation  was  spreading  rapidly  %  among 
them :  that  they  began  to  visit  foreign  nations,  to 
learn  their  institutions ;  to  open  their  ports  to 
commercial  strangers ;  to  instruct  their  youth  in 
the  education  of  freemen ;  and  that  a  new  genera- 
tion was  rising  up  superior  to  the  past :  and  in 
short,  that  a  radical  change  was  taking  place  in 
the  habits,  religion,  language,  and  necessities  of 
the  people.  It  was  therefore  natural  that  these  per- 


120 

sons  should  oppose  the  revolution,  and  they  did  so, 
with  that  firmness  and  spirit  to  which  the  mo- 
narchy of  Spain  in  other  times  owed  its  splendid 
conquests. 

The  present  situation  of  South  America  induces 
us  to  believe,  that  whatever  may  be  the  end  of  the 
present  revolution,  a  new  order  of  things  will  arise 
in  that  interesting  country,  which  will  constitute 
as  glorious  an  epoch  in  the  industry  and  commerce 
of  the  world  as  the  discovery  of  America,  or  the 
independence  of  the  United  States. 

The  subjugation  of  these  Provinces,  which  is 
now  meditated  by  King  Ferdinand,  is  utterly 
hopeless,  and  more  especially  since  the  European 
powers  have  proclaimed  their  neutrality — and  be- 
sides, the  recent  successes  in  Venezuela  demon- 
strate, that  Spaniards  and  Americans  can  never 
be  united. 

It  now  only  remains  to  consider  what  will  be 
the  situation  of  the  people  of  South  America  after 
they  have  triumphed  over  their  enemies,  and 
whether  they  will  be  able  to  establish  a  free  go- 
vernment. The  people  who  are  colonists  of 
Spain  or  Portugal,  must  always  have  many  more 
and  greater  difficulties  to  encounter  in  their  at- 
tempts to  meliorate  their  political  situation,  than 
those  of  any  other  nation,  [n  Europe,  after  so 
many  bloody  struggles,  England  alone  enjoys  a 
free  government,  and  on  the  continent  of  Ameri- 
ca, Heaven  has  conferred  the  precious  boon  only 
upon  the  United  States,  once  the  colonies  of  Eng- 
land.    But  the  liberties  of  England  have  been  the 


121 

slow  progressive  growth  of  centuries;  that  nation 
to  which  humanity  and  civilization  are  so  much 
indebted  ;  whose  language,  institutions,  and  laws, 
have  been  diffused  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
and  which  claim  a  greater  debt  of  gratitude  from 
the  world,  than  the  splendid  monuments  of  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  genius. 

In  order  to  form  a  correct  judgment  upon  the 
future  situation  of  South  America,  we  must  con- 
sider, that  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  the 
people  were  not  sufficiently  enlightened  to  ap- 
preciate the  blessings  of  liberty,  or  to  become 
citizens  of  a  free  government ;  and,  in  order  the 
better  to  judge  of  their  capacity  for  liberty  and 
their  prospects  for  independence,  it  must  be  re- 
collected, that  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in 
France  and  England,  the  modes  of  education  are 
more  multiplied,  and  brought  within  the  reach  of, 
all  classes ;  that  newspapers  are  widely  diffused 
and  the  people  are  easily  and  universally  instructed 
in  political  science;  while,  on  the  contrary,  in 
South  America,  the  process  of  public  education  is 
slow  and  tedious. 

When  all  these  difficulties  shall  be  removed  by 
the  introduction  of  commerce,  and  a  free  intercourse 
with  the  people  of  other  countries,  then  only  will 
their  intellectual  and  physical  faculties  be  develop- 
ed. Of  their  progress  during  the  present  revolution, 
I  must  say,  that  it  has  been  so  rapid  in  nine  years, 
that  those  only  can  form  a  just  idea  of  it,  who  have, 
like  me,  followed  its  progressive  steps  during  that 
period.  Ten  years,  ago  they  were  ignorant  of  the  re- 

Q 


122 

preservative  system  of  government,  of  the  liberty 
of  conscience,  and  of  the  press  ;  now  they  are  fami- 
liar with  all  three,  and  with  every  other  principle  of 
the  social  science.  These  are  certain  proofs  that  the 
countries  which  heretofore  were  the  habitations 
of  superstition  and  ignorance,  are  beginning  to 
be  enlightened :  and  it  is  flattering  to  me  to 
add,  that  in  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres,  where  the 
art  of  printing  has  begun  to  extend  itself,  the  peo- 
ple have  already  begun  to  adopt  the  republican 
institutions  of  the  United  States. 

From  the  foregoing  facts,  there  arise  many 
questions,  interesting  to  the  political  and  com- 
mercial world,  and  worthy  of  the  consideration 
of  statesmen  and  political  economists.  The  most 
important  and  obvious  will  be, — whether,  after 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  Upper  and  Low  Peru,  Chili,  San- 
ta Fe,  and  Caraccas,  shall  have  achieved  their  in- 
dependence, they  shall  establish  governments, 
distinct  and  independent  of  each  other,  or  alto- 
gether form  a  great  confederacy,  or  consolidated 
government.  The  geographical  position  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Peru,  shows  that  their  commerce  is 
more  direct  and  easy  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Dari- 
en,  than  by  the  river  La  Plata.  The  population  of 
Peru  is  greater  than  that  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  its 
productions  more  rich  and  abundant,  and  better 
adapted  for  commercial  exchanges,  and  the  in- 
crease of  the  number  of  consumers,  the  importa- 
tion of  foreign  goods,  the  free  navigation  of  the 
Amazon  to  the  centre  of  Peru,  and  to  the  foot  of 
the  Cordilleras  oi  the  eastern  Andes,  which  was 


123 

interdicted  by  the  laws  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
from  mutual  jealousy,  will  be  the  necessary  con- 
sequences of  the  independence  of  this  country. 
Baron  de  Humboldt  has  remarked  upon  the  great 
benefits  which  would  result  to  Peru,  if  the  King  of 
Spain  would  oblige  Portugal  to  open  the  naviga- 
tion of  this  noble  river,  which  waters  the  most 
fertile  regions  of  the  globe,  clothed  in  perpetual 
verdure,  and  blooming  with  fruits  and  flowers ; 
which,  like  the  fabled  Pactolus,  flows  over  golden 
sands,  and  through  groves  of  cinnamon  and  spices ; 
taking  its  rise  among  the  auriferous  mountains  of 
Peru,  and  pouring  its  ocean  of  waters  into  the 
Atlantic  under  the  line ;  communicating  imme- 
diately with  the  Provinces  of  Moxos  and  Chiquitos, 
which  are  inhabited  by  an  active  and  industrious 
population,  and  filled  with  towns  and  manufac- 
turing villages. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
fertile  and  extensive  plains  of  Rio  de  la  Plata  and 
Banda  Oriental  expand  themselves ;  where  the 
mode  of  living  is  so  easy,  and  the  productions  of 
the  soil  so  abundant ;  the  facilities  through  the 
many  rivers  of  the  country  for  an  active  commerce 
so  great,  and  where  the  single  Provinces  of  Tucu- 
man  and  Salta  might  support  a  population  of 
6,000,000 ;  a  powerful  empire  may  hereafter  arise 
to  take  a  commanding  station  among  the  nations 
of  the  world. 

I  cannot  conjecture  what  will  be  the  future  po- 
litical situation  of  these  great  countries,  as  they 
are  every  day  presenting  a  different  aspect.     But 


124 

the  history  of  the  United  States  teaehes  the  con- 
soling truth,  that  civil  and  religious  liberty  has 
transformed  her  trackless  forests,  which  were  once 
the  habitation  of  savages  and  wild  beasts — at  a 
time  when  Peru  and  Mexico  were  mighty  empires, 
with  cities  and  monuments  equal  to  those   of  Ro- 
man grandeur,  and  with  laws  more  or  less  just 
and   equitable — into   the  garden   of  the    world, 
where  cities  have  sprung  up ;  manufactures,  arts, 
sciences,  and  commerce  flourish  ;  and  a  system  of 
legislation  established,  which  Solon  and  Lycurgus 
never  imagined ;  which  is  not  found  in  the  writings 
of  Plato  or  Aristotle,  nor  in  the  speculations  of 
the  philosophers  of  antiquity,  nor  in  the  splendid 
theories  of  the  moderns ;  to  which  the  United 
States  owe  that  gigantic  march  of  civilization  and 
arts,  which  they  are  now  making  from  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  ocean. 

This  example  shows,  that  the  people  of  South 
America,  when  mingling  with  the  industrious  of 
other  countries,  and  learning  the  useful  exercise 
of  their  talents,  and  the  employment  of  their  power- 
ful energies,  and  banishing  for  ever  that  religious 
intolerance,  which  is  their  calamitous  inheritance 
from  the  Spaniards,  will  follow  the  enlightened 
institutions  of  their  brethren  in  the  north. 


125 


PART  II. 


LETTER  I. 

Sir, 

It  will  be  recollected  that  I  have  described 
Upper  Peru  as  comprehending  seven  Provinces 
or  intendencies;  to  wit,  Potosi,  Charcas  or  La 
Plata,  Cochabamba,  La  Paz,  Santa  Cruz  de  la 
Sierra  or  Puno,  Moxos  and  Chiquitos.  1  shall 
now  proceed  to  present  a  geographical  view  of 
each  of  these  Provinces  in  their  order,  with  a  par- 
ticular account  of  their  climate,  soil,  productions, 
and  other  physical  properties. 

The  region  which  extends  from  Jujui  to  Oruro, 
from  17°  52',  to  22°,  south  latitude,  comprises  the 
most  mountainous,  and  irregular  tract  of  the  coun- 
try ;  ascending  gradually  on  every  side  to  Potosi, 
which  is  the  loftiest  part.  Here  the  two  noble 
rivers  of  Amazon  and  La  Plata  take  their  rise  with- 
in about  seventy  miles  of  each  other,  in  lat.  1?° 
30'  S.  and  which  discharge  themselves  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean ;  the  former  under  the  Equator  and 
the  latter,  at  the  35th  degree  of  south  latitude,  at 
a  distance  of  nearly  2,500  miles  from  each  other. 
This  whole  tract  is  cold,  rude,  naked  and  moun- 
tainous; it  is  the  metallic  region  of  the  country; 


126 

and  is  the  source  of  a  number  of  small  rivers,  of 
which  those  rising  on  the  west  of  the  mountains 
run  into  the  Pacific,  and  those  on  the  east,  into 
the  rivers  La  Plata  and  Amazon,  and  ultimately 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

From  Oruro,  to  the  Cordillera  of  Vilcanota  or 
Santa  Rosa,  where  is  the  great  wall  built  by  the 
Incas  to  divide  the  departments  of  Colla-Suyo  and 
Tavantin-Suyo,  there  is  a  beautiful  valley  of  100 
leagues  in  extent,  called  Collao,  and  the  waters 
which  descend  from  the  Cordilleras,  and  meander 
through  this  valley,  form  the  great  Lake  Titicaca, 
situated  in  its  center.  There  are  two  Cordilleras 
of  the  Andes  which  extend  through  this  country 
from  north  to  south,  which  are  called  the  eastern 
and  the  western ;  the  eastern  is  the  loftiest,  and  its 
summits  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  while  the 
western  Cordillera  exhibits  less  snow,  and  is  more 
low,  broken,  and  irregular,  and  therefore  the  com- 
munication between  the  intervening  valleys  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  is  not  interrupted.  The  contrary  is 
the  fact  with  respect  to  the  Cordilleras  ofChili,  which 
are  impassable  during  several  months  of  the  year. 
Both  Cordilleras  are  full  of  gold  and  silver  ores, 
but  it  is  on  the  eastern  Cordillera  only  where 
the  hvaderos  or  pure  washed  gold  is  found.  The 
geographical  position  or  latitude  of  this  region 
has  but  little  influence  upon  its  productions,  the 
fertility  of  its  soil  or  the  temperature  of  its  cli- 
mate ;  for,  from  the  union  of  a  variety  of  physical 
phenomena, such  as  the  height  of  the  Cordilleras 
and  their  being   covered  with  perpetual  snow, 


127 

their  enormous  masses,  the  extent  of  the  plains, 
the  declivities  of  the  mountains,  which  present  a 
broad  aspect  towards  the  east,  it  possesses  a  cli- 
mate of  almost  every  variety  of  temperature,  and 
a  soil,  suited  to  the  productions  of  Europe  and 
Asia;  of  wheat  and  barley,  wine  and  oil,  cotton, 
indigo,  sugar  and  spices ;  on  the  plains,  which  are 
clothed  in  perpetual  verdure,  there  graze  vast 
herds  of  cattle,  horses  and  mules :  in  the  middle 
regions  of  the  mountains,  which  are  covered  with 
pines  and  oaks,  &c.  are  found,  a  great  variety  of 
beautiful  birds,  among  which  are  the  parrot,  ru- 
isanor,  &c.  and  in  the  loftier  regions,  which  are 
bare,  the  ostrich ;  besides  vast  quantities  of  sheep, 
such  as  the  Vicunas,  Alpachas,  Llamas,  Guanacos, 
Chinchillas ;  some  of  which,  particularly  the  two 
first,  yield  a  wool  of  singular  fineness.  Besides 
all  these  things  which  are  produced  in  this  com- 
paratively small  district,  there  are  also  found  vast 
quantities  of  ores  of  gold  and  silver,  and  of  metals 
of  every  kind. 

OP    P0T0SI. 

This  Intendency  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  La 
Paz,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  Salta,  and  on  the  east  by  Charcas  or 
La  Plata.  It  is  the  most  southern  Province  of 
Upper  Peru,  bordering  on  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  is 
divided  into  eight  lesser  provinces  or  sub-delega- 
tions, which  are  Atacama,  Carangas,  Lipez, 
Porco,  Pilaya  or  Cinty,  Tarija,  GlfayunJu,  and 
Paria. 


128 

Atacama  borders  on  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  has 
Arica  or  Low  Peru  on  the  north,  and  Chili,  or  the 
deserts  of  the  same  name,  on  the  south,  which  are 
sixty  leagues  in  extent. 

The  high  part  of  this  Province  is  cold,  and  its 
productions  are  such  as  are  peculiar  to  cold  cli- 
mates :  such  as  farinaceous  grains  and  roots.  In 
the  lower  part,  is  the  port  of  Cobija,  (lat.  22*. 
39'.  S.)  which  is  very  much  frequented  by  fishermen 
and  coasting  craft.  Its  trade  consists  principally 
in  fish,  of  which  there  are  two  kinds  that  are 
caught  in  great  abundance — the  congreo  and  tollo — 
the  latter  similar  to  the  codfish.  This  Province 
contains  nine  small  towns,  or  villages,  the  chief  of 
which  is  San  Francisco  de  Atacama.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  30,000  souls.  It  contains  a  moun- 
tain called  Concho,  which  is  celebrated  for  its 
copper  mines  ;  and  here  is  a  manufactory  of  cop- 
per hammers  for  the  miners  of  Potosi.  There  are 
also  ores  of  silver ;  and  large  masses  of  this  metal 
in  its  pure  state  have  been  found  here.  There 
are  also  mines  of  cobalt ;  and  jasper,  talc,  alum, 
and  a  variety  of  beautiful  crystals,  are  found  in 
abundance.  By  the  river  Loxa,  the  people  of  the 
interior  of  this  Province  carry  on  a  trade  with 
the  coast  of  Peru. 

Carangas  is  a  considerable  province  ;  its  chief 
town  is  Tarapacha,  which  is  large,  and  inhabited 
by  a  great  number  of  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  on 
account  of  the  celebrated  silver  mines  of  Aullagas, 
which  are  within  this  Province.     This  Province. 


129 

like  the  others  which  lie  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  has 
a  mild  and  temperate  climate.  • 

Lipez,  whose  chief  town  is  of  the  same  name, 
has  a  cold  climate,  as  it  is  situated  on  the  Cordil- 
leras. It  is  about  sixty  leagues  west  of  the  city  of 
Potosi.  In  this  Province  are  produced  an  abun- 
dance of  horned  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  :  it  is 
a  fine  grazing  district.  It  has  also  rich  mines 
of  gold  and  silver.  Here  is  the  famous  mine  of  the 
silver  table,  where  the  metal  has  been  cut  off  with 
a  chisel. 

On  the  south  and  south-east  of  Potosi,  lies  the 
Province  ofChichas,  whose  chief  town  is  Tupiza. 
Through  this  Province  runs  the  great  post  road 
from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Potosi.  It  is  the  largest 
province  of  Potosi,  extending  from  north  to  south 
144  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  300  miles  to  the 
river  San  Juan  in  Tarija,  by  which  it  is  separated 
from  that  Province.  The  Province  of  Chichas  is 
situated  one  half  on  the  mountains,  which  is  cold, 
and  the  other  half  in  the  temperate  and  beautiful 
valleys  of  Tarija.  The  mountainous  part  is  full  of 
mines  of  gold  and  silver;  but  principally  of  gold, 
of  which  the  richest  is  the  mine  of  Suyapacha, 
celebrated  for  the  defeat  of  the  royalists  during 
the  present  revolution.  Its  chief  town  is  Tupiza, 
which  has  a  population  of  5  or  6000  whites.  In 
this  town  are  the  workshops  or  laboratories  of 
the  miners,  for  extracting  the  metals  and  refining 
them.  During  the  present  revolution,  there  have 
been  produced  here  annually  between  30  and 
35,000  lbs.  of  gold  and  silver.     The  products  of 

R 


130 

the  mines  of  Charoma,  Estarca,  and  Cerrilos,  are 
of  a  very  superior  quality. 

The  farmers  of  this  Province  rear  vast  numbers 
of  asses  and  goats,  of  which  the  former  is  a  great 
article  of  commerce ;  and  at  Yavi  in  this  Province 
are  situated  the  large  estates  of  the  Marquis  of 
Toxo. 

The  road  leading  from  Buenos  Ayres,  which 
divides  this  Province  from  that  of  Tarija,  is  full 
of  quartz,  which  contains  gold,  copper,  lead,  and 
iron,  and  at  the  small  town  of  Mojoz  there  has 
been  discovered  a  stratum  of  magnetic  iron  ore, 
full  of  particles  of  gold,  which  is  picked  up  after 
the  heavy  rains. 

On  leaving  these  cold  regions,  and  travelling 
three  hundred  miles  to  the  east  and  north-east  of 
Potosi,  after  crossing  a  ridge  of  small  mountains, 
wre  descend  into  the  beautiful  and  fertile  valleys 
of  Tarija.  There  are  four  of  these  valleys,  and 
within  them  are  situated  two  lakes  of  salt  water. 
It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  salubrity  of  the  cli- 
mate, the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  abundance 
of  the  rivulets  and  streams  which  water  these  val- 
leys. This  Province  is  bounded  by  the  deserted 
villages  of  Pilaya  on  the  north  and  west,  by  Jujui 
on  the  south,  and  by  countries  inhabited  by  savage 
Indians  on  the  east.  The  chief  town,  which  is  of 
the  same  name,  is  situated  delightfully  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Tarija,  lat.  21°30'S. ;  its  streets 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles ;  its  inhabitants  are 
composed  of  all  the  different  casts  of  the  country, 
and  amount  to  about  10,000  souls.   It  has  two  rich 


131 

convents,  and  sends  a  deputy  to  the  general  con- 
gress at  Buenos  Ayres.  Its  soil  is  humid  and  warm, 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  produces  oil  and  wine 
in  great  abundance ;  cotton  of  the  finest  quality,  and 
flax,  grow  here  spontaneously  in  the  forests  and 
fields. 

Besides  the  richness  of  the  soil,  this  province 
contains  mines,  which  were  formerly  very  produc- 
tive, as  that  of  Choco,  which  yielded  gold  ore,*  ■ 
that  afforded  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  metal. 
Among  the  gold  mines,  that  of  Chiloco  is  the  rich- 
est. The  inhabitants  of  this  Province  are  famous 
carriers,  and  remarkable  for  their  physical  strength. 
But  notwithstanding  the  great  fertility  of  this 
Province,  it  is  sterile,  when  compared  with  the 
neighbouring  country  inhabited  by  the  Chiregua- 
nos  Indians. 

Passing  up  the  valleys  of  Tarija,  we  next  arrive 
at  the  Province  of  Cinty  or  Pilaya,  which  en- 
joys a  climate  not  inferior  to  any  on  the  globe. 
It  produces  abundance  of  fine  wheat,  grapes, 
roots,  &c.  Of  the  grapes,  are  made  wine  and 
brandy,  and  if  not  of  a  superior  quality,  it  is  only 
owing  to  the  unskilfulness  of  the  manufactur- 
er. The  population  of  the  chief  town,  of  the 
same  name,  is  12,000,  and  of  the  whole  Province 
62,000.  The  rivers  Toropalca,  and  Suypacha, 
which  rise  in  the  Cordilleras  of  Lipez,  flow  through 
these  valleys,  forming  the  great  river  of  San  Juan, 
which  divides  the  two  Provinces  of  Pilaya,  and 
Tarija.  This  river,  which  is  destined  at  no  dis- 
tant period  to    become  the  channel  of  a  great 


132 

commerce,  runs  north  until  it  unites  with  the  river 
of  Cinty,  then  winds  westward  until  it  meets  the 
Pilcomajo;  then  through  the  Indian  countries, 
until  it  meets  the  Guadalquivir,  which  comes  from 
the  northern  Cordilleras ;  then  unites  with  the 
river  Conception,  and  runs  through  the  country  of 
Chayhuaya,  until  it  meets  the  river  Salinas ;  then 
through  the  country*  of  Gran-Chaco,  where  it 
'meets  the  river  BciattC£%  from  the  norths  which  wds 
navigated  in  1791  by  Cornejo,  a  citizen  of  Sal^a/*  oe- 
low  on  the  west,  it  meets  the  river  Pescado,  and 
runs  to  the  valley  of  Senta  and  New  Oran,  a  town 
built  byPizarro,  the  last  President  of  Charcas,  to  en- 
courage the  navigation  of  the  river;  here  it  unites 
with  the  river  Senta,  and  below  is  the  river  Santa 
Cruz,  and  all  this  part  is  navigable  ;  afterwards  it 
unites  with  the  river  of  Salta  and  Jujui,  where  it 
takes  the  name  of  Rio  Grande,  and  under  this  name 
runs  to  Paraguay,  and  there  again  takes  the  name  of 
the  Bermejo,  and  then  running  eastwardly  twenty 
four  leagues,  to  the  city  of  Corrientes :  it  here  finally 
assumes  the  name  of  La  Plata,  and  running  a  south 
eastwardly  direction,  empties  itself  into  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean.  This  river  is  navigable  at  least  1,300 
miles,  and  within  300  miles  of  Potosi.  The  head  of 
navigation  is  what  is  called  the  Pass  of  the  In- 
dians, forty  leagues  from  the  famous  Indian  town 
of  Omaguaca,  from  which  there  is  a  good  road  to 
Potosi. 

These  rivers  are  full  of  fish  of  almost  every 
kind,  which  constitute  the  principal  food  of 
the  Indians  of  their  borders,  which  abound  with 


133 

forest  and  fruit  trees,  such  as  orange,  peach,  ap^ 
pie,  &c. 

I  have  heen  thus  minute  in  my  description  of 
these  rivers,  as  they  may  hereafter  become  the 
channel  of  an  extensive  commerce  into  the  interi- 
or of  Peru,  and  because  this  small  Province  of 
Tarija  possesses  a  climate  of  such  various  tem- 
perature, that  an  inhabitant  of  Norway  and  of 
Italy,  may  find  a  climate  like  his  own,  suited  to 
his  constitution  and  habits. 

On  the  north  and  east  of  Potosi,  are  situated 
the  Provinces  of  Paria  and  Porco.  The  chief 
town  of  the  former  is  Toledo,  which  was  found- 
ed by  the  Viceroy  of  that  name.  This  country 
is  also  cold.  In  the  Cordillera  of  Condo-Condo, 
are  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  In  this  Pro- 
vince the  river  Desaguadero,  which  is  an  outlet  of 
the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  is  lost  in  the  ground, 
the  wool  of  this  Province,  and  of  which  there  is 
abundance,  is  equal  to  that  of  Segovia  in  Spain ; 
the  sheep  are  uncommonly  large,  and  the  mutton 
is  very  fat  and  of  fine  flavour.  The  best  sheep 
sell  for  half  a  dollar  each.  The  cheese,  which 
is  made  of  sheep's  milk,  is  superior  to  the  finest 
cheese  of  Europe,  all  the  varieties  of  which  I  be- 
lieve I  have  tasted ;  it  is  known  as  the  cheese  of 
Paria. 

PORCO. 

This  Province  extends  120  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  180  miles  from  east  to  west. 
Its  chief  town  is  Puna,  situated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  mountain  of  the  same  name,  where  the  Incas 


134 

procured  immense  quantities  oi'  silver,  and  even 
now,  these  mines  are  worked  with  great  profit. 
Here  the  Spaniards  are  numerous,  and  they  are 
generally  engaged  in  mining.  In  this  Province 
also,  are  mines  of  rock  salt,  in  the  town  of  Yocalla, 
from  whence  are  produced  vast  quantities,  which 
are  used  in  the  various  processes  of  extracting  the 
metals  from  their  ores. 

In  the  center  of  this  Province  is  situated  the 
city  of  Potosi,  lat.  19°  30'  S.  being  1650  miles  dis- 
tant from  Buenos  Ayres;  1215  miles  from  Lima; 
and  300  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast.  The  city 
is  built  at  the  bottom  of  the  celebrated  mountain 
of  the  same  name,  which  is  so  famous  for 
the  immense  riches  which  it  has  been  continu- 
ally pouring  forth  for  three  centuries.  From 
whatever  side  you  approach  this  mountain,  you 
will  be  struck  with  its  singular  appearance.  Its 
figure  is  conic,  and  it  is  covered  with  green,  red, 
yellow,  and  blue  spots,  which  give  it  a  very  cu- 
rious appearance ;  it  resembles  no  other  moun- 
tain in  the  world ;  it  is  entirely  bare,  without  any 
trees  or  shrubs.  By  its  side  there  is  a  smaller 
mountain,  called  Huayna  Potosi,  while  the  prin- 
cipal mountain  is  called  Hatun  Potosi,  meaning 
father  and  son.  In  the  night,  when  the  mouths  of 
the  mines  are  lighted  up,  the  beautiful  and  striking 
appearance  of  this  mountain  can  scarcely  be  ima- 
gined, much  less  described. 

The  city  of  Potosi  is  nearly  three  leagues  in 
circumference  ;  it  is  divided  into  the. city  proper, 
and  Yn%enios,  where  are  situated  the  laboratories 


135 

of  the  miners,  and  which  are  separated  by  a  small 
river  called,  the  River  of  the  Lakes,  over  which 
there  is  a  stone  bridge.     The  city  and  the   Yngc- 
nios  are  nearly  a  mile  apart.     The  streets  of  the 
city  are  narrow  and  irregular,  and  paved  with 
round  stones,  with  side  walks.     On  the  north  of 
the  city  there   is  an  extensive  promenade,   with 
fountains  of  water,  but  no  trees  or  shrubs,  and 
but  a  very  little  verdure,  which  is  a  small  species 
of  barley.  The  houses  are  uniformly  of  one  story, 
built  of  stone  and  brick,  with  balconies  of  wood, 
and  without  chimneys.     Each  house  has  a  yard, 
and  sometimes  three,  in  the  rear,  and  in  almost 
every  yard  there  are  fountains  of  water,  which 
are  lined  with  stone,  and  often  very  beautiful. 
The  houses  contain,  generally,  a  drawing  room, 
dining  room,  bed  rooms,  &c.  and  each  servant  has 
his    separate    apartment.      The    houses   of   the 
wealthy,  who  are  numerous  here,  are  splendidly 
furnished.     At  the  time  I  visited  this  city,  in  1808, 
there   was   a   church   rebuilding    in   the   public 
square,    which  was  not  interrupted  during   the 
revolution,  both  Belgrano  and  Goyeneche  giving 
orders  that  the  work  should  go  on.     There  are 
in  the  city  three  monasteries,  five  convents,  and 
nineteen  parochial  churches.     The  churches  of 
the  monks  and  nuns  are  richly  ornamented  with 
silver.     Every  altar  has  its  front  of  solid  silver, 
and  there  are  five  altars  in  every  church ;   also 
four  chandeliers  of  at  least  two  yards  in  height, 
with  corresponding  branches,  all  of  silver.     The 


13(5 

other  churches  are  not  so  rich,  but  their  uten- 
sils are  always  of  silver.  The  Archbishopric 
of  Charcas  contains  180  churches,  which  are 
more  or  less  furnished  with  silver  ornaments ;  those 
churches  near  the  mines  are  the  richest,  such  as 
those  of  Puna,  Chayanta,  Popo,  Tupiza,  &c. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  public  square  is  situ- 
ated the  Mint,  which  is  a  grand  edifice  of  free 
stone,  of  a  quadrangular  figure,  two  stories  high, 
and  nearly  450  feet  square,  including  three  pits 
or  yards,  together  with  offices  for  the  governors 
and  workmen,  and  apartments  for  the  extensive 
machinery.  Its  corridors  are  of  ivory,  made 
at  Biscay  ;  the  machinery  for  coining  is  very 
complicated,  which  was  also  brought  from  Spain, 
although  the  artists  of  the  country  do  all  the 
repairs,  and  are  skilful  engravers.  The  ma- 
chinery is  all  worked  by  mules.  The  coining 
of  this  mint  is  superior  to  that  of  Lima,  or 
Santiago. 

According  to  official  statements  published  in 
the  "  Mercurio  Peruano,"  there  were  coined  in 
the  mint  of  Potosi,  from  1790  to  94,  both  inclusive, 
the  sum  of  $27,967,566,  which  makes  an  average 
of  $5,593,513  for  each  year.  According  to  the 
accounts  of  Humboldt,  there  were  coined  in  the 
year  1790,  83,942,592,  and  the  proportion  of  gold 
-awl  silver  was  as  1  to  200.  It  is  generally  under- 
stood at  Potosi,  that  the  common  yearly  average 
is  about  $4,000,000.  There  is  also  a  Bank  in  this 
city,  called  the  Bank  of  St.  Charles,  which  is  es- 
tablished for  the  purpose  of  buying  gold  and  sil- 


137| 

ver  bullion  for  the  mint,  at  fixed  prices;  this  es- 
tablishment belongs,  like  the  mint,  to  ihe  govern- 
ment. The  price  of  pure  ingots  of  silver  is  $1  an 
ounce*,  and  of  manufactured  silver  or  plate  87  J 
cents;  the  price  of  gold  is  from  %  12  to  $16  an 
ounce,  varying  according  to  its  carats.  These 
prices  are  always  the  same  ;  the  only  difference 
is  in  the  quality  of  the  metal.  The  government 
enjoys  the  profit  in  these  purchases. 

There  are  six  houses  of  public  entertainment, 
or  hotels,  and  a  great  number  of  tippling  shops, 
in  the  city.  There  is  a  market-house  of  two  hun- 
dred yards  in  length,  which  is  supplied  with  every 
kind  of  production  from  all  parts  of  the  country ; 
with  fruits  from  the  neighbouring  vallies,  such  as 
chirimoyas,  peaches,  oranges,  pine  apples,  &c. 
with  meat  and  vegetables  of  various  kinds.  Fish, 
however,  is  extremely  scarce  and  dear.  The  fish 
called  Dorado,  is  highly  esteemed,  and  commands 
a  great  price.  It  is  reported  in  Potosi,  that  some 
years  ago,  a  clerk  of  some .  rich  man  of  that  city, 
was  sent  to  market  to  purchase  one  of  these  fish, 
and  that  he  found  the  clerk  of  some  other  man  of 
wealth,  bargaining  for  a  fine  one;  that  the  clerks 
got  into  a  strife  to  see  which  would  out-bid  the 
other;  that  finally  one  offered  $5000,  and  took 
the  fish;  and  the  story  adds,  that  the  master  of  the 

*  The  intrinsic  value  of  pure  silver,  Ly  the  ounce  in  the 
United  States,  is  $1,29— of  silver  of  standard  fineness,  &  1,1 5. 
(Jold  of  2'2  carats  is  worth  $17,77  ;  of  24  carats,  or  pure  gold, 
$19,39.  These  are  the  mint  prices;  the  prices  of  commerce 
are  now  much  higher. 

s 


JJ3 

clerk  who  was  out-done,  was  so  incensed  that  he 
turned  him  out  of  his  service. 

Generally  speaking,  the  markets  of  Potosi  are  as 
abundantly  supplied  (the  article  offish  excepted,) 
as  those  of  New-York  or  Philadelphia.     When  1 
was  there,  I  did  not  find  the  prices  so  extravagant 
as   has   generally   been    reported    by   travellers. 
Baron   de_  Humboldt   observes,    that    provisions 
are    very   dear   in   Potosi,   without    recollecting 
that  the   neighbouring   countries    are  extremely 
fertile.     The    expenses    of  living    are    certainly 
much  higher  in  Potosi  than   in   any    other   city 
of  Upper  Peru ;   but   are  very  low  when   com- 
pared  to   the   cities   of  North   America.      The 
price  of  wheat  flour  is  about  $1.25  per  100  lbs. 
and  a  fine  sheep  sells  for  less  than  $].   The  roads 
leading  into  the  city  present  a  curious  spectacle 
in  the  morning,  of  many  thousand  Llamas,  asses, 
arid  mules,  loaded  with  the  produce  of  the  coun- 
try, for  the  market.     The  roads  are  irregular  and 
broken,  particularly  to  Condorapacheta,  distant 
twenty-five  leagues  from  the  city,  but  by  no  means 
dangerous.     The  large  timbers  used  for  wheel 
axles  in  the  mills,  are  brought  from  Tucuman  on 
carriages.  The  road  of  Despoblado,  which  crosses 
the  table  land  of  the  Cordilleras  between  Salta 
and  Oruro,  is  more  even  and  smooth,  and  on  this 
road  about  80,000  mules,  in  troops  of  from  4  to 
5000,  are  driven  annually  to  Lima  to  be  sold. 

The.climate  of  Potosi  is  very  cold;  and,  for  the 
distance  of  twelve  miles  around  the  city,  there  are 


l«39 

no  trees  or  shrubbery  of  any  kind,  and  nothing 
vegetates  except  a  species  of  green  moss.  In  the 
months  of  May  and  June  the  mornings  are  ex- 
tremely cold,  as  these  are  winter  months  in  this 
climate  ;  but  the  nights  are  remarkably  serene,  and 
mild,  and  the  sky  is  very  beautiful.  It  is  not 
so  cold  but  that  flowers  are  kept  in  rooms  without 
fires,  during  the  severest  weather. 

The  houses  are  without  chimnies  and  fires,  and 
the  apartments  are  kept  warm  by  being  closed 
during  the  cold  season,  and  plentifully  covered 
with  Alpacha  skins,  and  by  burning  perfumery  in 
them.  On  entering  a  house,  a  visiter  is  always 
presented  with  a  silver  chafing-dish  of  perfumery 
burning ;  this  is  always  the  first  salutation. 

There  are  frequent  snow  storms  here,  but  the 
snow  never  remains  on  the  ground  longer  than 
twenty  hours  ;  the  cattle  are  never  housed. 

On  the  hills  above  the  town  there  are  about 
thirty  artificial  lakes,  for  supplying  the  city  with 
water,  and  turning  the  mills  of  the  miners.  It  is 
a  remarkable  fact,  that  notwithstanding  their  great 
elevation,  these  lakes  are  never  frozen  over,  al- 
though there  is  much  frost  in  their  neighbourhood 
on  the  mountains  It  frequently  happens  that 
these  supplies  of  water  fail,  for  want  of  rains,  and 
then  the  mills  are  stopped,  and  the  operations  of 
the  miners  in  extracting  the  metals  suspended. 

The  population  of  the  city  of  Potosi,  according 
to  the  calculations  of  Canete,  who  was  Assesor- 
general  of  that  Intendency,  and  had  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  all  the  country,  amounted,  in  1808, 


140 

to  40,000  ;  and  this  statement  1  believe  to  be  cor- 
rect for  that  period.  Mons.  Fresier,  who  travelled 
in  that  country  in  1714,  says  the  population  then 
was  70,000,  and  that  the  Spaniards  were  to  the 
Indians  as  1  to  6 ;  that  there  were  nineteen  pa- 
rishes ;  now  there  are  but  sixteen.  Wilcocke,  in 
his  history  of  Buenos  Ayres,  states,  that  in  1807 
the  population  was  70,000,  and  that  including  all 
those  employed  in  the  various  processes  of  mining, 
it  would  amount  to  100,000;  but  Alcedo,  who 
wrote  thirty  years  ago,  says  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants then  was  only  25,000. 

•  The  rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru  wasted  the 
population  of  this  city,  and  greatly  checked  its 
progress,  but  it  has  rapidly  augmented  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years.  The  official  statements 
published  by  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  givn 
the  population  of  the  Province  or  Intendency  as 
amounting  to  112,000,  without  including  Indians. 

This  city  is  the  focus  of  all  the  commerce  be- 
tween Buenos  Ayres-  and  the  interior  Provinces, 
and  is  a  place  of  great  business.  The  jQzogucros*, 
or  proprietors  of  mines,  receive  liberal  advances 
from  the  government  to  enable  them  to  carry  on 
their  works  ;  these  advances  are  $25,000  for  every 
Yngenio,  or  amalgamation  work,  which  each 
Jizoguero  shall  establish,  and  some  have  two  or 
three.     This  money  is  lent  on  the   condition  that 

*  In  Mexico,  the  Jlzogutros,  according  to  Humboldt,  are 
miners,  or  those  who  are  employed  in  the  amalgamation  of 
metals.     In  Peru,  these  persons  are  called  Beneficiadores, 


141 

the  government  receive  one  shilling  on  every 
ounce  of  silver  produced  by  the  Azoguero.  This 
class  of  men,  whose  capital  is  thus  liberally 
augmented,  have  greatly  increased  the  business, 
and  added  to  the  embellishments  ©f  the  city. 
They  live  in  the  most  profuse  and  princely  style : 
it  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to  possess  gold 
plate :  such  as  plates,  goblets,  spoons,  forks,  &c. 
They  employ  great  numbers  of  clerks,  and  have 
numerous  attendants. 

This  city  is  much  frequented  by  strangers 
from  different  parts  of  the  country ;  it  is  a 
place  of  great  gayety  and  dissipation.  There 
are  no 'theatres,  and  the  principal  amusement 
for  all  classes  is  gambling ;  and  faro-banks  and 
billiard  tables  are  scattered  all  over  the  city. 
The  city  is  immensely  rich  in  gold  and  silver ; 
money  is  within  the  reach  of  every  body,  and 
very  abundant,  as  may  be  supposed,  when  more 
than  %  10,000  are  coined  every  day,  the  year 
round.  The  Azogueros  are  extremely  profuse 
in  their  expenditures,  squandering  their  enormous 
wealth  with  the  same  liberal  hand  with  which  it 
is  poured  into  their  lap.  As  the  source  of  their 
wealth  is  in  their  inexhaustible  mines,  and  if 
poor  to-day,  they  may  be  rich  to-morrow, 
their  habits  become  essentially  different  from 
those  of  the  merchant  or  manufacturer,  whose 
profits  depend  upon  calculation  and  economy. 

The  manufactures  of  this  city  are  in  a  wretch- 
ed state,  being  confined  principally  to  the  making 
of  leather,  hats,  and  tools  from  imported  steel, 


142 

which  is  sold  at  an  enormous  price.  The  leather 
is  made  from  goat-skins,  which  are  of  superior 
quality  and  very  abundant  here.  Gold  leaf  is  also 
manufactured  in  great  quantities.  This  arti- 
cle is  much  Used  in  the  Churches,  and  the  candles 
even  are  gilded  before  they  are  lighted ;  and  in 
the  private  houses  of  the  rich,  the  leaves  of  the 
flowers  which  they  have  in  great  abundance  in 
their  drawing  rooms,  are  aften  gilded  with  gold 
leaf.  There  are  no  carriages  in  this  city,  and 
when  the  ladies  take  the  air,  it  is  on  the  backs  of 
horses  or  mules,  or  in  sedan  chairs,  which  are 
very  common.  There  are  persons  here  whose 
profession  it  is  to  teach  the  mules  and  horses  to 
travel  with  an  easy  gait,  for  the  ladies.  There 
is  another  mode  of  travelling  which  is  curi- 
ous :  a  chair  is  fixed  on  poles  which  are  laid 
across  the  backs  of  two  mules,  and  in  which  two 
or  three  persons  frequently  ride.  The  Countess 
of  Casa  Real,  a  few  years  ago,  attempted  to  intro- 
duce coaches  into,  the  city,  but  the  first  time  her 
carriage  was  drove  into  the  street,  it  was  fairly  ran 
away  with  by  the  mules,  and  dashed  to  pieces 
against  a  Church.  This  city  is  situated  on  the 
side  of  the  lower  part  of  the  mountain,  in  the 
valley  at  the  foot  of  it,  and  is  altogether  too  steep 
and  irregular  to  admit  of  wheel  carriages. 

In  the  other  part  of  the  town,  called  Yngenios, 
which  lies  north  west  of  the  city,  in  the  valley,  are 
the  mills  or  amalgamation  works  of  the  miners.  The 
population  of  this  part  consists  of  Indians,  Kaachas 
or  Cholo  miners,  and  other  workmen,  and  amounts 


143 

to    about  6000  souls.     The  Indians  of  the  Mita, 
which  is  a  kind  of  annual  conscription,  by  which 
the    Indians  of  several  Provinces  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Peru  are   obliged  to  work   in  the  mines, 
present  a  most  miserable  and  shocking  appear- 
ance ;  they  are  employed  in  the  hardest  labour 
of  the  mines,  such  as  stamping  the  ores,  raising 
them  from  the  mines,  and  attending  to  the  tritura- 
tion, which  is  done  by  the  mills,  and  by  which  they 
are  continually  exposed  to  inhale  the  deleterious 
powders  of  the  minerals.     The  price  of  their  la- 
bour is  50  cents  per  day,  and  although  experience 
shows  that  their  labour  is  not  useful  as  they  are 
unfit  for  mining,  and  those  mines  are  invariably 
worked  the  best  in  which  the  Indians  of  the  Mita 
are  not  employed,  yet  the  infamous  avarice  of  the 
Mineros,  dooms  them  to  these  noxious  employ- 
ments.    Ulloa  had  the  wickedness  to  say  that  the 
labour  of  these   Indians  is  not  severe ;  and  the 
dictionary  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  ashamed  of 
giving  a  correct  definition  of  the  Mita,  has  con- 
cealed  the   truth.      (5)   The  poor   Indians   are 
obliged  to  sleep  in  the  open,  cold  air,  on  the  bare 
ground,  and  from  their  exposure,  the  noxious  in- 
halation of  the  mineral  dust,  and   the  hardships 
of  their  servitude,  at  least  one  third  of  every  con- 
scription die. 

The  Kaachas  are,  from  practice,  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  business  of  mining,  as  it  is  carried  on 
in  Peru.  Their  numbers  at  Potosi,  are  between 
4  and  6000.  Their  wages  are  from  1  to  $2  a  day. 
according    to  their   skilfulnes.     The  benefisciado- 


144 

ro,  have  $6  a  day  for  superintending  the  works. 
The  Kaachas  are  very  fond  of  spiritous  liquors, 
drinking  at  once,  almost  their  daily  wages.  It  is 
not  their  wages  which  induces  them  to  labour, 
but  a  custom  in  the  mines,  which  is  this ;  the 
mines  are  worked  from  Monday  noon  to  Saturday 
noon,  on  accouut  of  the  proprietors;  but  from 
Saturday  noon  to  Monday  noon,  including  Sunday, 
the  miners  work  on  their  own  account.  This  is 
an  ancient  and  inveterate  custom,  and  cannot  be 
changed.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  miners 
discover  new  veins,  and  sometimes  take  the  ore 
of  their  employers,  which  was  left  by  them  at  the 
end  of  their  week's  work,  and  extract  the 
metal  after  their  own  fashion,  and  in  the  most 
rude  manner.  The  quantity  of  silver  obtained  in 
this  way,  never  has  been  calculated ;  and  there- 
fore all  estimates  of  the  quantity  of  the  precious 
metals  produced  by  the  mines  of  South  America, 
which  have  been  made  by  travellers,  must  be  er- 
roneous. M:  Torres,  has  justly  applied  this  re- 
mark to  the  statements  of  the  Baron  de  Humboldt, 
and  adds,  as  a  further  reason  for  the  inaccuracy 
of  these  statements,  that  they  are  taken  from  the 
registers  of  mints  and  custom  houses,  and  that  it 
is  the  interest  of  the  miners  and  merchants  to 
save,  as  much  as  they  can,  the  high  duties  which 
are  imposed  upon  the  precious  metals. 

There  are  in  Potosi,  120  mills  or  amalgamation 
works,  although  they  are  not  all  employed  ;  each 
one  has  a  large  pit  or  yard  enclosed,  and  various 
offices  for  the  superintendants  and  workmen,  and 


1*5 

stables  for  the  mules.  These  mills  resemble  a 
common  French  plaster  mill ;  the  wheel  is  about 
25  or  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  so  constructed  as 
to  lift  up  and  down  an  iron  or  copper  hammer, 
weighing  200  pounds ;  by  which  the  ores  are  re- 
duced to  a  fine  powder.  The  timbers  for  the  ax- 
les of  these  wheels  are  very  long  and  strong,  and 
each  one  costs  about  $800;  the  great  price  is 
owing  to  the  distance  which  they  are  brought, 
and  the  badness  of  the  roads  through  which  they 
are  carried  on  rudely  constructed  carriages.  The 
mills  are  attended  each  by  two  or  three  Indians, 
whose  faces  are  muffled  in  order  to  prevent  t^he 
inhalation  of  the  mineral  dust. 

The  process  of  separating  the  metals  from  their 
ores,  which  I  witnessed  in  Potosi,  is  very  well  de- 
scribed by  VVilcocke,  and  it  is  as  follows:  the 
ores  are  first  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  or  flower 
by  the  hammers,  which  I  have  described ;  some- 
times, in  order  to  render  them  more  friable,  they 
are  previously  roasted,  in  an  oven  or  furnace. 
The  powder  is  sifted  through  fine  iron  or  copper 
sieves  which  are  large,  and  handled  by  four  of 
five  Indians;  the  fine  powder  is  taken  away  for 
amalgamation,  and  the  coarse  is  returned  to  the 
mill.  The  ore  is  sometimes  pulverized  dry,  and  some- 
times with  water;  if  dry,  it  is  afterwards  wet,  and 
well  kneaded  with  the  feet  for  a  considerable  time, 
which  is  done  by  the  Indians.  The  mud  is  then  laid 
upon  a  floor  in  square  parcels  of  a  foot  thick,  each 
containing  about  2500  weight,  and  these  masses  are 
called  cuerpoa  or  bodies.     On  these  heaps  about 

T 


146 

200  pounds  of  common  salt  are  thrown,  which  is 
moulded  and  incorporated  with  the  metallic 
mud  for  two  or  three  days.  After  this,  the  pro- 
portion of  mercury  which  is  judged  proper,  is 
added  to  the  mass.  The  quantity  of  mercury 
used  depends  upon  the  supposed  richness  of  the 
ore.  They  generally  allow  from  four  and  an  half  to 
six  pounds  of  mercury  to  one  pound  of  silver. 
The  masses  are  now  stirred  eight  or  ten  times  a 
day  in  order  to  promote  the  chemical  action,  and 
to  accelerate  the  amalgamation  of  the  mercury 
and  silver ;  and  for  this  purpose,  lime  is  also  fre- 
quently added,  and  sometimes  lead  or  tin  ore.  In 
cold  weather  this  process  of  amalgamation  goes 
on  slowly,  so  that  they  are  often  obliged  to  stir  the 
mass,  during  a  month  or  six  weeks.  When  the  sil- 
ver is  supposed  to  be  all  collected,  the  mass  is 
carried  to  the  Tinas  del  Lavadero,  or  vats,  made 
of  stone  or  wood,  and  lined  with  leather,  into 
which  a  current  of  water  is  directed,  to  wash  off 
the  earth.  There  are  commonly  three  vats  through 
which  the  mineral  is  passed,  and  the  same  process 
is  performed  in  each.  When  the  water  runs  off 
clear,  the  amalgam  is  found  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vats.  This  is  put  into  a  woollen  bag,  and  hung 
up  for  the  quicksilver  to  drain  out;  it  is  then 
beat  with  flat  pieces  of  wood,  and  pressed  by  a 
weight  laid  upon  it ;  when  as  much  of  the  quick- 
silver as  can  be  got  out  by  this  means,  is  expelled, 
they  put  the  paste  or  residuum  into  a  mould  of 
wood,  made  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  at  the  bottom 
of  which  is  a  copper  plate  full  of  holes ;  after  it 


147 

has  become  hard,  the  mould  is  taken  off  and  the 
mass  with  its  copper  bottom  is  placed  over  a 
vessel  of  water,  and  is  covered  with  an  earthen 
cap  or  reversed  crucible,  on  which  ignited  char- 
coal is  placed  in  order  to  evaporate  the  quick- 
silver, some  part  of  which  is  collected  by  the  cap 
with  which  the  mass  is  covered,  and  is  saved* 
After  the  evaporation,  there  remains  a  lump  of 
grains  of  silver,  which  require  to  be  fused  before 
they  become  united  into  a  mass;  they  are  then 
cast  into  ingots,  which  are  stamped.  The  ingots 
are  cast  in  a  pyramidal  form  when  destined  for  the 
mint;  if  intended  for  private  use,  they  are  mould- 
ed into  a  variety  of  fancy  figures  according  to  in- 
dividual taste,  and  are  frequently  employed  to 
ornament  the  houses  of  the  proprietors  of  the 
mines.  In  these  tedious  and  rude  processes 
of  amalgamation,  it  is  calculated  that  one  third 
at  least  of  the  silver  is  lost,  and  twice  the 
time  and  expense  incurred,  which  would  be  ne- 
cessary, in  a  more  enlightened  mode,  to  com- 
plete the  operation.  Of  the  mercury,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  how  much  is  wasted,  but  according 
to  Humboldt,  the  Azogueros  of  Mexico,  by  whom 
metallurgy  is  much  better  understood,  lose  in 
general  from  eleven  to  fourteen  ounces  of  mercury 
for  every  eight  ounces  of  silver.  The  benefici- 
adores  of  Potosi,  are  by  far  the  most  skilful  of  all 
Upper  Peru.  In  the  other  provinces,  instead  of 
triturating  wheels,  they  use  grindstones  to  pulverise 
the  ores,  and  every  other  operation  is  equally 
rude  and  slovenly.     The  mode  1  have  described, 


148 

is  the  only  one  practised  in  Potosi,  in  extracting 
the  metals  from  their  ores,  and  the  chemical  prin- 
ciples upon  which  the  various  processes  depend, 
are  probably  not  at  all  understood  by  those  who 
have  practised  them  for  many  years. 

The  mountain  of  Potosi,  which  contains  the 
far-famed  silver  mines,  is  6000  varas  (16,250  feet,) 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  according  to  Luis 
Goudin,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris,  re- 
ferred to  by  Alcedo,in  his  "  Dictionario  GeograficO 
de  America :"  and  its  height  above  the  neighbour- 
ing plain,  according  to  Baron  de  Humboldt,  is 
1624  varas  (4397  feet).  From  these  data  we  may 
fix  the  elevation  of  the  city  of  Potosi  to  be  about 
11,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  an  eleva- 
tion nearly  twice  as  great  as  the  white  hills  of 
New-H  ampshire. 

At  a  point  distant  1492  feet  from  the  summit  of 
the  mountain,  its  circumference  has  been  calcu- 
lated at  upwards  of  four  miles ;  and  at  another 
point  980  feet  lower,  at  upwards  of  eight  miles. 
Alcedo  states  the  circumference  of  the  mountain 
at  its  base  to  be  three  miles,  while  Wilcocke  says 
it  is  eighteen  miles.  I  should  not  myself  judge 
it  to  be  more  than  nine  ;  I  have  never  walk- 
ed around  it,  but  I  have  frequently  ascended 
to  its  summit;  the  walk  generally  occupied  an 
hour.  The  view  from  the  top  of  this  lofty 
mountain  is  the  most  grand  and  picturesque 
in  the  world,  of  valleys,  and  lakes,  and  moun- 
tains ;  this  is  the  loftiest  point  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras in  that  quarter,  and  1  believe  there  are 


149 

but  few  peaks  that  are  higher  in  all  Upper  Peru. 
But  the  sublimit)"  and  beauty  of  the  surrounding 
scenery  did  not  so  much  interest  my  feelings  as 
the  celebrated  mountain  under  my  feet,  which  has 
poured  forth  for  so  many  years  its  lavas  of  silver 
upon  the  world ; — to  animate  enterprise  and  re- 
ward industry ;  to  pamper  the  luxurious,  and 
minister  to  the  comforts  of  the  sober  and  virtuous ; 
to  disseminate  knowledge  and  religion,  and  to 
spread  the  desolations  of  the  sword — marshalling 
armies  in  the  field,  and  pointing  the  thunder  of 
navies  on  the  ocean ;  filling  cities  with  monuments 
of  taste  and  art,  and  overwhelming  them  with 
ruin  ;  founding  mighty  empires,  and  levelling 
them  in  the  dust : — inciting,  in  short,  to  'virtue 
and  to  crime,  and  being  the  source  of  much 
.good,  and  the  "  root  of  all  evil,"  in  the  world. 

This  mine  was  discovered  so  late  as  the  year 
1545,  by  an  Indian  named  Hualpa,  and  accident- 
ally :  as  he  was  pursuing  his  goats  up  the  moun- 
tain, he  laid  hold  of  a  bush,  whose  roots  gave 
way,  and  laid  bare  beneath  it  a  mass  of  pure 
silver.  In  that  country,  however,  the  people  say 
the  first  discoverer  was  not  Hualpa,  but  Potocchi, 
Potossi,  or  Potocsi,  from  whom  the  mountain  takes 
it  name.  The  first  man  who  commenced  working 
the  mine  was  Thomas  Villaroel,  a  Spaniard. 
These  mines  produced,  from  the  year  of  discove- 
ry to  1761,  the  sum  of  % 929,000,000,  which  have 
paid  duties;  and  to  our  days,  the  enormous 
amount  of  $  1 ,043,083,733.  From  the  rude  mode 
of  working  the  mines,  and  the  ignorance  of  the 


150 

miners,  the  exterior  part  only  of  the  mountain  has 
been  worked,  and  the  quantity  has  decreased  so 
little  in  so  many  years,  that  the  silver  extracted 
from  these  mines  has  only  diminished  in  the 
proportion  of  4  to  1.  It  has  been  ascertained, 
from  experience,  that  the  richest  mines  are  the 
deepest ;  and  this  is  the  general  fact  with  respect 
to  the  table  silver  mine,  and  all  the  other  mines  of 
Peru ;  and  the  deepest  mines  are,  of  course,  the 
most  exposed  to  inundations  from  the  water. — 
The  richest  veins  of  Potosi  have  been  inundated, 
and  in  consequence  abandoned,  and  so  has  been 
the  mine  of  Lipes,  with  whose  owner  I  am  well 
acquainted.  When  this  mine  was  first  discovered, 
he  informed  me  that  he  cut  the  silver  out  with 
chisels,  but  the  water  soon  flowed  in,  and  obliged 
him  to  abandon  it.  In  his  prosperity,  he  would 
lose  at  the  gambling-table  thousands  of  dollars  in 
one  night,  but  when  1  knew  him  he  was  supported 
by  the  charity  of  his  friends. 

In  order  to  draw  oflfthe  water  from  the  mines  of 
Potosi,  there  was  a  subterranean  gallery  dug,  un- 
der the  direction  of  Weber,  a  German  geometri- 
cian, who  came  to  the  country  in  the  expedition 
of  the  Baron  de  Nordenflycht,  sent  by  the  Spanish 
government.  The  geometrician  received  his  sala- 
ry of  %  4,000  a  year,  but  his  work  did  not  answer 
the  purpose,  and  it  was  only  carried  on  by  him 
from  motives  of  private  speculation.  This  gallery 
at  its  mouth  is  large  enough  to  admit  a  man  on 
horseback:  it  is  ornamented  with  masonry  of  stone 
at  its  entrance,  with  an  inscription  of  the  time  of 


151 

its  commencement,  &c.  It  extends  into  the  moun- 
tain horizontally,  diminishing  in  its  size,  for  the 
distance  of  1^  or  2  miles.  Its  sides  are  lined  and  its 
roof  arched  the  whole  way  with  stone.  It  is  really 
of  no  sort  of  use,  except  as  a  place  to  confine  cul- 
prits in ;  and  here  were  sent  the  troops  of  Charcas 
who  expressed  themselves  in  favour  of  the  patriots, 
by  the  President  Nieto.  The  work  was  begun  in 
1779,  and  was  still  continued  at  the  time  I  visited 
the  mountain,  in  1 808.  It  is  a  monument  of  enor- 
mous expenditure,  and  of  the  most  consummate 
folly. 

Afterwards,  another  scheme  to  drain  off  the 
water  was  projected,  which  was  approved  of  by 
the  Spanish  court;  and  by  a  royal  decree  of 
the  23d  June,  1780,  the  colonial  government  was 
ordered  to  take  measures  to  obtain  accurate  in- 
formation upon  the  subject,  and  to  employ  some 
skilful  person  to  take  charge  of  the  work.  Don 
Rubin  de  Celis,  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy,  was  sent 
to  Potosi  as  a  fit  person  to  undertake  the  project. 
It  was  to  be  a  gallery  so  dug  as  to  intersect  the  prin- 
cipal veins  of  metal,  and  the  shafts  which  had  been 
sunk  for  the  purpose  of  light  and  ventilation.  He 
made  all  the  necessary  calculations  of  the  direc- 
tion and  dimensions  of  the  gallery,  and  its  proba- 
ble expense,  which  was  estimated  at  the  different 
sums  of  J  1,000,000  and  of  $  250,000,  according 
to  the  mode  in  which  the  work  should  be  exe- 
cuted. This  project  was  never  carried  into  effect  ; 
and  the  richest  veins  of  Potosi  are  still  inundated 
with  water. 


152 

The  road  to  the  mines  lies  on  the  north  side  of 
the  mountain,  as  do  also  the  mines.  It  ascends  in 
a  zig-zag  direction ;  it  is  very  wide,  but  is  rude, 
uneven,  and  stony.  On  this  road  there  are  con- 
stantly employed  at  least  20,000  asses,  in  carrying 
the  ores  from  the  mines  to  the  amalgamation 
works.  The  ore  is  conveyed  in  bags  made  of 
skins,  on  the  backs  of  the  animals,  no  carriages  of 
any  kind  being  employed.  There  are  a  great 
many  mines  open  on  the  mountain;  the  shafts  are 
of  various  sizes  and  depths,  sometimes  perpendicu- 
lar, and  sometimes  horizontal,  pursuing  the  course 
of  the  metallic  vein.  They  are  extremely  incom- 
modious to  the  workmen.  In  some  parts  there  are 
spacious  chambers  excavated,  where  the  ore  has 
been  taken  out,  the  roofs  of  which  are  supported 
by  huge  pieces  of  timber.  The  ore  is  obtained 
without  difficulty  by  the  rude  pickaxes  and  other 
iron  and  steel  instruments  of  the  miners.  It  is  rais- 
ed to  the  mouth  of  the  mine,  when  the  shaft  is 
perpendicular,  by  ropes,  which  are  pulled  by  the 
Indians,  and  when  the  course  of  the  shaft  is  oblique 
or  horizontal,  it  is  carried  on  the  backs  of  the  In- 
dians, in  bags  of  skin.  To  afford  him  light  in  his 
dark  retreat,  the  miner  has  a  tallow  candle,  stuck 
in  his  button  hole  or  collar.  The  convenience  or 
comfort  of  the  miners  is  never  consulted,  and  when 
they  come  down  from  the  mountain  on  Saturdays, 
they  present  a  most  hideous  picture  of  fdth.  They 
collect  m  throngs  at  the  tippling  houses  in  the  city, 
spending  their  week's  wages  in  brandy  and  chicha, 
and  they  keep  the  town  in  an  uproar,  with  the  mn- 


153 

sic  of  their  guitars  and  flutes,  and  their  drunken 
brawls.  In  no  other  city  of  Peru  do  the  miners 
present  so  miserable  an  appearance  as  in  Potosi, 
for  here  only  is  the  mita  in  force. 

The  ores  from  which  the  metals  are  extracted 
are  of  various  natures,  consistencies,  and  colours ; 
some  of  which  are  white  and  grey,  mixed  with  red- 
dish spots,  called plata  blanca,  or  white  silver.  When 
this  ore  is  broken,  it  exhibits  grains  of  pure  silver. 
Some  ores  are  entirely  black,  exhibiting  no  silver, 
and  these  are  called  negrillos ;  some  black  mixed 
with  lead,  called  plomo  ronco,  or  coarse  lead,  in 
which  silver  appears  when  it  is  scratched  with  a 
hard  instrument ;  this  is  generally  the  richest.  I 
have  seen  specimens  of  this  ore  which  when  broken 
exhibited  pure  silver  in  lumps.  There  is  another 
species  which,  if  rubbed  against  any  hard  sub- 
stance, becomes  red,  and  is  therefore  called  rosi- 
cler,  resembling  a  rose ;  it  is  harder  than  any 
of  the  other  sorts,  and  is  very  rich.  There  is 
another  species  which  is  brilliant  like  talc,  and  is 
called  paco ;  there  is  also  an  ore  which  is  green, 
called  cobrisso,  or  copperish,  and  which  is  the 
most  common  ore ;  the  others  are  rare.  There 
are  a  great  variety  of  silver  ores  in  this  mountain, 
the  principal  of  which  1  have  here  given  in  the 
vulgar  names  of  the  miners,  and  at  the  same  time 
have  described  their  external  characters,  as  they 
appear  to  the  eye.  These  varieties  are  not  so 
general  in  the  other  mines.  (6.) 

The  ores  of  Potosi  yield  the  metal  in  various 
proportions :  soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  mines, 

U 


154 

the  average  was  from  G4  (o  72  ounces  per  quintal, 
(lOOpounds).  Since  the  commencement  of  the  1 8th 
century,  the  metals  have  produced  only  from  24  to 
32  ounces  per  caxon  of  5000  pounds,  or  from  -,Vo 
to  TVir  per  quintal  .  Baron  de  Humboldt,  who 
makes  these  statements,  also  says,  that  from  ]  574 
(29  years  after  the  discovery)  to  1789,  the  mean 
riches  of  the  minerals  have  diminished  in  the 
proportion  of  170  to  1 ;  while,  as  1  have  before 
stated,  the  quantity  of  silver  extracted  from  the 
mines  has  only  diminished  in  the  proportion  of 
4  to  1 ;  and  if  they  are  not  the  richest  in  the  world, 
they  rank  immediately  after  the  mines  of  Gua- 
uaxuato,  the  most  celebrated  in  Mexico. 


\5ij 


LETTER  II. 


CHARCAS  OR  LA  PLATA. 


This  Intendency  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Cochabamba,  on  the  west  and  south  by  Potosi, 
and  on  the  east  by  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  or  Pu- 
110.  It  is  divided  into  four  lesser  provinces  or  sub- 
delegations,  to  wit,  Tomina,  Punabamba,  Yampa- 
raes,  and  Chayanta.  The  population  of  the  in- 
tendency is  112,000,  without  including  Indians. 
The  province  of  Tomina  borders  on  the  east  on 
the  country  of  the  Chiriguanos  Indians,  and  lies 
south  of  the  city  of  Charcas,  the  capital  of  the  in- 
tendency. Its  climate  is  warm ;  it  has  some  vine- 
yards and  sugar  plantations,  and  rears  fine  cattle 
and  sheep.  In  this  province  is  the  beautiful  plain 
of  Tarapaya,  which  is  a  delightful  region. 

Punabamba  is  bounded  by  Tomina  on  the 
north,  by  Potosi  on  the  south,  and  on  the  east  and 
south-east  it  borders  on  a  country  inhabited  by  sa- 
vage Indians,  and  on  the  west  and  north-west  it  is 
bounded  by  the  province  of  Yamparaes.  It  ex- 
tends 72  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  42  from  north 
to  south.  It  lies  south-east  of  the  city  of  Charcas. 
This  provinoc  is  full  of  cultivated  farms;  it  has  no 
mines  that  have  been  discovered.  Its  population 
is  about  .0000. 

The  province  of  Yamparaes  contains  sixteen 
towns  or  villages,  and  its  chief  town  is  San  Sebas- 
tian. It  is  a  small  province,  and  mountainous.  Its 
productions  are  wheat,  barley,  fruits,  &c.  for  the 


15t> 

markets  of  Potosi  and  Charcas.  It  is  situated  a 
little  south-east  of  the  city  of  Charcas,  the  capital 
of  the  intendency.  This  province  is  watered  by 
the  rivers  Pilcomayo  and  Cachimayo,  which  flow 
into  the  river  La  Plata,  and  which  are  celebrated 
for  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  their  fish. 
The  river  Pilcomayo  has  a  fine  meandering  course 
through  this  province,  and  its  banks  are  clothed 
with  verdure,  and  covered  with  forest  trees. 

Chayanta  is  bounded  by  Cochabamba  on  the 
north,  by  Oruro  on  the  north-west,  by  Yamparaes 
on  the  south-east,  and  by  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra 
on  the  east.  Its  extent  from  north  to  south  is  132 
miles,  and  from  cast  to  west  108  miles.  It  contains 
27  towns,  and  has  a  population  of  30,000.  In  the 
mountains  there  are  mines  of  gold  and  silver  which 
have  been  worked.  It  contains  some  forests,  and 
is  principally  an  agricultural  district. 

The  city  of  Charcas,  the  capital  of  the  Inten- 
dency, is  situated  in  thenorth-east  part  of  it,  and  lies 
partly  in  the  province  of  Yamparaes,  and  partly  in 
that  of  Chayanta.  It  is  distant  75  miles  from  Po- 
tosi, in  a  north-easterly  direction,  in  latitude  19° 
South.  This  city,  as  I  have  stated,  Mas  founded 
by  one  of  Pizarro's  captains,  in  the  year  1538,  and 
on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Indian  town  of  Chu- 
quisaca*,  by  which  name,  as  well  as  that  of  La 
Plata,  or  the  city  of  silver,  it  is  sometimes  call- 
ed.   The  population  of  this  city  is  15,000,  of  whom 

*  The  Indian  name,  in  the  Quechua  language,  was  Choque- 
Chaka,  or  bridge  of  gold.  The  Indians  passed  through  this 
town,  over  the  Pilcomayo,  tp  the  celebrated  mines  of  Porco. 


157 

5000  are  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  and  the  remain- 
der Mestizos,  Indians,  and  Negroes. 

The  city  stands  in  a  plain,  surrounded  on  every 
side  by  several  small  hills.     Its  climate  is  very 
fine,  and  its   atmosphere  serene;  except  in  the 
rainy  season,  when  there  are  sometimes  thunder- 
storms.   The  streets  cross  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles, are  very  wide,  well  paved,  and  altogether 
the  city  is  very  neat.     In  the  city  there  is  a  pro- 
menade, ornamented  with  colonnades  and  obe- 
lisks, in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  artificial  foun- 
tain of  water.     The  houses  are  regularly  of  one 
story,   with  balconies    of  wood,    and  with    spa- 
cious gardens  in  the  rear.     This  city  is  the  see  of 
an   Archbishop,    who    has  an   annual  income  of 
$60,000  and  upwards.     The  Cathedral  is  a  very 
magnificent  edifice ;  the  gate  is  of  copper,  which 
was  cast  by  a  Cholo,  and  is  very  massy,  and  much 
ornamented.      There    are   few   churches   in   the 
world  which  are  larger  than  this,  and  1  imagine, 
fewer  that  can  compare  with  it  in  the  richness  of 
its  ornaments.     Its  pulpit  is  of  solid  silver,  as  also 
the  smaller  pulpits,  from  which  the  epistle  and  the 
mass  are  chaunted ;  its  altars  and  huge  chande- 
liers are  also  of  solid  silver.     The  palace  of  the 
archbishop  is  a  splendid    building,  with     grand 
saloons  and  spacious  gardens   with  fountains   of 
water ;  and   it   is   furnished  in  a  princely   style. 
There  are  also  in  this  city  five  convents,  three 
nunneries,   an   university,   two   colleges,  and  an 
academy  of    lawyers.        In   the   university   and 
colleges  there  are  about  500  students,  who  come 


lo8 

lrom  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  price  of  tuition 
is  $120  per  annum  to  each  student.  I  have  already 
stated  the  branches  which  are  taught  in  these  col- 
leges; the  study  of  mathematics  and  the  natural 
sciences  were  prohibited  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment. In  order  to  obtain  admission  into  the  law 
academy,  it  is  necessary  to  have  taken  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  or  Bachelor  of  Civil  Laws  in  the 
university,  which  is  obtained  by  undergoing  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  Justinian's  Institutes, 
and  which  costs  from  6  to  $800. 

In  the  academy  is  taught  the  practice  of  the 
courts,  and  the  regular  course  is  two  years;  the 
candidate  then  is  strictly  examined  before  the 
judges,  and  if  qualified,  is  admitted  to  the  bar. 
This  city  is  the  seat  of  the  Audience,  or  supreme 
court  of  justice,  whose  jurisdiction  extends  over 
the  whole  of  Upper  Peru.  There  are  five  judges, 
including  the  chief  justice,  who  is  called  regenie, 
and  the  others  oidores  from  the  Latin  auditor  ;  and 
an  attorney-general,  who  is  called  fiscal.  There- 
gente  has  $9000  salary,  and  the  others  $4000  each. 
These  judges  are  called  the  ministers  of  the  king; 
they  all  come  from  Spain,  and  are  very  pompous 
personages.  They  are  clothed  with  great  power, 
and  generally  display  the  consciousness  of  it,  in 
the  haughtiness  of  their  demeanour.  A  few  years 
since  a  lady  of  Charcas  left  a  sum  of  money  in  her 
will  to  be  appropriated  in  soliciting  the  King  of 
Spain  to  appoint  the  Deity  an  oidor  of  Charcas. 
The  idea  was  perhaps  impious,  but  it  shows  with 
what  feelings  these  persons  are  regarded  by  the 
people,  and  the  disgust  which  their  manners  excite. 


159 


ORURO. 


This  city  is  governed  by  a  municipality  inde- 
pendent of  the  provinces,  and  is  not  properly  in- 
cluded in  any  of  them.  It  is  situated  17°  58'  south 
latitude,  being  132  miles  south-west  of  the  city  of 
La  Paz,  171  miles  north-west  of  the  city  of  Potosi, 
and  150  miles  west  of  the  city  of  Cochabamba.  It 
is  admirably  situated  for  a  flourishing  inland  com- 
merce ;  being  170  miles  east  of  the  port  of  ArLca 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  and  the  post  road  from  Bue- 
nos Ayres  to  Lima,  and  the  road  of  Despoblado, 
from  Salta  over  the  table  land  of  the  Cordilleras, 
pass  through  it  On  the  east  of  the  city,  a  dis- 
tance of  about  six  miles,  is  the  river  Desaguedero, 
which  connects  the  two  lakes  of  Titicaca  and  Pa- 
ria.  The  city  stands  near  the  Cordillera  of  the 
coast,  or  western  Cordillera,  which  is  here  much 
broken,  and  a  good  mule  road  passes  over  it  to 
Arica.  The  town  is  built  at  the  foot  of  the  mine- 
ral mountain  of  the  same  name.  Its  figure  is  a 
crescent;  it  is  well  laid  out,  and  its  houses  are 
regularly  of  one  story,  it  has  5  convents.  Its 
markets  are  well  supplied,  and  with  fresh  fish 
from  the  ocean.  The  population  is  about  15,000  ; 
its  climate  is  cold,  and  it  is  much  exposed  to  the 
winds  which  blow  from  the  Cordillera.  The  cattle 
and  sheep  of  the  neighbouring  districts  are  very 
fine,  ind  particularly  the  latter.  Although  the 
mines  ire  generally  poor,  yet  that  of  Popo  (distant 
from  the  city  18  miles)  previous  to  the  revolution; 


loo 

yielded  annually  60,000  lb.  of  silver.  There  is  a 
manufactory  here  of  bridle  bits,  which  is  pretty  ex- 
tensive; the  price  of  iron  of  which  they  are  made 
is  enormous,  being  sometimes  $80  for  100  pounds. 
There  is  also  a  manufactory  of  copper  ware,  and 
a  famous  powder  manufactory,  which  is  supplied 
with  salt  petre  from  the  neighbourhood,  which  af- 
fords it  in  great  abuhdance. 

This  city  is  the  center  of  commerce  for  all  the 
provinces,  and  during  the  revolutionary  war  it  has 
constantly  been  occupied  as  the  principal  military 
position  of  Upper  Peru.  From  it  to  Lima  there  is 
a  good  road,  the  country  being  almost"  a  perfect 
level  to  Vilcanota,  a  distance  of  nearly  400  miles, 
and  from  that  place  to  Lima,  although  the  country 
is  more  rugged,  a  fine  carriage  road  by  the  coast 
might  easily  be  made ;  but  the. Spaniards,  who  are 
here  the  lords  of  the  soil,  from  the  sluggishness  of 
their  genius,  and  their  entire  destitution  of  public 
spirit,  have  neglected  it ;  indeed,  they  have  always 
conducted  in  this  country,  as  if  they  considered 
themselves  mere  sojourners  in  it,  and  that  the 
period  was  always  near,  when  it  would  be  wrested 
from  them.  There  is  not  a  single  work  of  public 
improvement  performed  by  them,  to  be  found ;  no 
public  roads,  no  bridges,  no  establishments  of 
commerce,  nor  improvements  of  navigation.  In 
this  fine  country,  where  nature  is  never  idle,  and 
where  the  choicest  productions  of  the  globe  grow 
almost  spontaneously,  the  hand  of  the  Spaniard 
has  never  been  employed,  except  in  torturing  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  for  gold,  to  satiate  the  lust  of 


161 

his  avarice,  or  in  oppressing  the  natives  of  the 
country,  to  gratify  his  pride  of  power. 

Oruro  was  formerly  inhabited  by  wealthy  mi- 
ners, but  in  the  revolution  of  Tupac  Amaru,  it  suf- 
fered severely.     1  particularly  refer  to  the  bro- 
thers, Rodrigues,  natives  of  the  country,  who  being 
accused  by  the  Spaniards  of  being  implicated  in 
that  rebellion,  were  arrested,  their  property  con- 
fiscated, and   themselves  sent  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  thrown   into   a  dungeon;    and  without   be- 
ing proved  guilty  of  any  offence,  or  even  brought 
to  trial,  they    suffered  a  confinement  of  twenty 
years,  ancf  until  their  death.    These  men  possessed 
immense  riches ;  on  their  arrest  by  Segurola,  the 
governor  of  La  Paz,  there  were  found  in  their 
houses  greaf  quantities  of  silver,  and  their  store 
rooms  were  full  of  ingots.     This  wealth,  the  value 
of  which  can  hardly  be  estimated,  was  plundered 
from  them  in  the  most  barbarous  manner,  and  that 
wretch,  Segurola,  on   his  death-bed,  being  tor- 
mented by  his  guilty  conscience,  declared  who 
were  his  accomplices  in  the  infamous  transaction. 
This  mode  of  robbing  the  wealthy  Creoles  has  not 
been  uncommon  in  this  country.     I  now  know 
men  residing  in  La  Paz  who  have  been  made  rich 
by  this  species  of  plunder;  and  it  is  well  known 
that  the  discoverer  of  the  mine  of  Laicacota  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  finally  put  to  death  by  the 
Spaniards,  whom  he  had  generously  admitted  to 
participate  in  the  riches  of  his  mine. 


X 


162 
LETTER  Hi' 

COCHABAMBA. 

This  Intendency  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Moxos  and  La  Paz ;  on  the  west  by  La  Paz  and 
Charcas ;  on  the  soutli  by  Charcas ;  and  on  the 
east  by  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  and  Chiquitos. 
These  are  the  general  boundaries,  but  its  parti- 
cular limits  are  well  described  by  the  celebrated 
Prussian  naturalist  Haenke.  (7.) 

The  territory  of  Cochabamba  forms  an  oblong 
tract  of  land,  extending  from  east  to  west  520 
miles,  and  from  north  to  south  92  miles. 

There  is  no  province  in  the  two  Americas  which 
nature  has  denned  with  such  determinate  and 
lasting  boundaries  as  that  of  Cochabamba.  The 
Rio  Grande,  a  noble  river,  separates  it  from  the 
districts  of  Chayanta,  Yamparaes,  and  Charcas  on 
the  south ;  a  chain  of  mountains  situated  in  the 
interior,  and  whose  summits  reach  the  clouds, 
constitute  a  formidable  barrier  on  the  north,  and 
separate  it  from  the  mountains  of  the  Andes. 
The  industry  of  man  has  with  gentle  advances, 
extended  the  territory  of  this  province,  and  con- 
verted what  appeared  impenetrable  forests,  into 
the  most  beautiful  and  productive  regions  of  the 
earth.  The  Rio  Grande  and  the  chain  of  moun- 
tains before  mentioned,  incline  a  little  to  the  north 
of  direct  east  lines,  but  their  courses  are  always 
parallel.  On  the  west  this  Intendency  is  bound- 
ed by  that  immense  chain  of  mountains,  which  are 


163 

sometimes  called  the  Cordilleras  of  the  coast; 
and  on  the  east,  it  extends  to  those  vast  unbroken 
plains  which  reach  almost  to  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
On  carefully  considering  the  geographical  fea- 
tures of  this  territory,  it  is  found  to  slope  off  gra- 
dually from  the  highest  elevations  on  the  west 
into  those  unexplored  and  interminable  plains  on 
the  east,  where  the  empire  of  the  native  inhabit- 
ants, the  Indians  and  wild  beasts,  has  never  been 
disputed.  This  declivity  forms  an  inclined  plane, 
whose  elevated  part  is  the  highest  point  of  the 
Cordilleras,  and  whose  base  reposes  upon  the 
lowest  level  of  the  continent.  It  is  to  this  singu- 
lar and  happy  position,  that  Cochabamba  owes  its 
fertility,  and,  that  in  so  very  small  a  portion  of  the 
globe,  every  variety  of  soil  and  climate  in  the 
world  is  found.  On  the  summits  of  the  Cordille- 
ras, an  eternal  winter  reigns,  where  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  remotest  regions  of  Siberia  and  Kam- 
schatka,  may  encounter  a  climate  as  unfriendly  as 
their  own. 

The  interior  or  lower  part  of  the  Cordilleras 
contains  immense  quantities  of  metals,  and  the  de- 
clivities of  the  mountains  and  the  plains  beneath* 
abound  in  every  kind  of  mineral,  saline,  and  vege- 
table production.  The  lakes  of  the  country  are 
inexhaustible  fountains  of  common  salt,  which  is 
dissolved  in  the  rainy  season,  and  crystallized  in 
the  dry;  which  process  is  rapidly  carried  on  in  a 
country  of  such  great  elevation.  In  these  parts  of 
the  country  are  found  plains  covered  with  mineral 
alkali,  (carbonate  of  soda.)  sal  admirabile,  (sul- 


164 

phate  of  soda,)  and  magnesia  vitriolada,  (sulphate 
of  magnesia).  Descending  from  these  mountains, 
upon  the  scattered  rocks  are  found  vitriol  and 
alum,  which  are  called  cachina  and  millo,  whose 
masses  are  decomposed  by  the  powerful  hand  of 
time. 

Upon  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  which  are  co- 
vered with  snow,  where  the  atmosphere  is  too 
rare  for  the  respiration  of  ordinary  animals,  are 
found  the  different  species  of  the  Peruvian  Camel, 
the  Guanaco,  the  Llama,  the  Al  pacha,  and  the  Vi- 
cuna :  and  the  wool  of  the  latter  is  esteemed  the 
finest  in  the  world.  Notwithstanding  the  extreme 
barrenness  of  this  Cordillera,  and  its  great  eleva- 
tion, nature  with  a  bountiful  hand,  and  as  if  intend- 
ing that  every  part  of  this  most  favoured  and  inter- 
esting province  should  minister  to  the  comforts 
and  necessities  of  man,  has  spread  over  its  preci- 
pices and  highest  peaks,  a  multitude  of  healing 
herbs,  whose  medicinal  virtues  have  placed  them 
in  the  highest  rank  in  the  materia  medica.  These 
are  yareta,  gentian,  and  every  species  of  valerian.  De- 
scending the  Cordilleras  to  the  neighbouring  val- 
leys, and  the  profound  ravines,  there  is  experienc- 
ed, within  a  very  limited  extent,  the  influence  of  a 
climate  extremely  sweet  and  benignant,  and  which 
is  at  the  medium  temperature  of  the  whole  globe. 
It  is  here  that  nature  has  established  a  just  equili- 
brium between  the  gradations  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  which,  in  proportion  to  its  elevation,  and  its 
particular  formation,  has  tempered  the  intense 
heat  of  the  torrid  zone  with  the  frosts  of  the  arctic 


165 

circle.      The    mild    and    cheering    temperature 
which  in  Europe  prevails  only  in  the  spring,  is 
here  perpetual,  and  the  variations  of  the  thermo- 
meter between  the  heat  of  the  rainy  seasons  and 
the  cold  of  the  dry,  are  so  small  as  scarcely  to  be 
perceptible.      This  province  produces  in  equal 
abundance  maize,  barley,  wheat,  vines,  the  olive, 
and  all  the  fruits  of  the  ancient  continent.     In  the 
narrow  defiles,  watered  by  the  rapid  rivers  of  the 
Cordilleras,  the  refraction  of  the  solar  rays  aug- 
ments the  heat,  and  the  sides  are  covered  with 
trees,   whose  numbers  increase'  in  proportion  to 
their  distance  from  the  summits  of  the  mountains. 
The  mountains  of  the  Andes,  which  are  nearest  to 
the  elevated  peaks  of  the  Cordillera  of  the  inte- 
rior, have  other  modifications  of  soil  and  tempera- 
ture, which  are  peculiar  to  Upper  Peru.     Trees 
and  plants  innumerable  cover  the  soil  with  prodi- 
gious abundance,  and  fill  the  atmosphere  with  a 
salubrity  and  fragrance  beyond  any  other  region 
in  the  world.     In  this  place,  properly  speaking, 
the   temperature  of  the  torrid  zone  commences. 
The  fecundity  of  nature  is  here  displayed  in  all 
its  richness  and  beauty ;  all  the  animals,  and  ve- 
getables of  e/ery  variety  and  class,  attract  here 
the  curiosity  of  the  philosopher ;  and  their  number 
and  beauty  transcend  the  powers  of  imagination. 
A  considerable  but  uniform  degree  of  heat,  and 
a  constant  but  agreeable  moisture  in  the  atmos- 
phere, produce  an  equanimity  of  temper  and  of 
feeling,  to  which  the  people  of  variable  climates 
are  strangers,  and  which  cannot  be  sufficiently  ap- 


16(5 

predated.  This  fertile  soil  produces  the  palm, 
the  pine,  or  anana,  the  banana,  so  various  in  its 
species,  cotton,  Peruvian  bark,  and  cocoa. 

The  union  of  the  streams  which  take  their  rise 
in  this  chain  of  mountains,  forms  the  immense  ri- 
ver of  the  Amazons,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  smallest 
chain  commence  those  vast  plains  extending  to- 
wards the  east,  whose  limits  have  never  been  ex- 
plored. 

Such  are  the  varieties  of  soil  and^climate  in  the 
province  of  Cochabamba,  and  from  which  its  fer- 
tility and  the  multitude  of  its  productions  may 
easily  be  imagined.  In  this  little  work,  the  re- 
sult of  long  and  painful  excursions,  1  have  endea- 
voured to  display,  with  all  the  order  and  method 
of  which  1  am  capable,  the  most  interesting  of  its 
productions ;  they  are  worthy  in  all  respects  of 
the  attention  of  the  government,  which  in  time 
will  reap  the  greatest  advantages,  if  it  will  patro- 
nise the  exploration  of  it,  since  its  productions  are 
the  most  important  materials — the  elements  and 
foundation  of  manufactures  and  the  arts,  and  of 
all  the  objects  of  industry.  The  above  are  the 
observations,  in  substance,  of  Mons.  Haenke. 

The  word  Cochabamba,  in  the  Quechua  dia- 
lect, means  rich  grass,  and  the  territory  is  aptly 
named.  This  intendency  contains  no  provinces, 
and  has  no  tributary  Indians.  Its  population  is 
about  115,000. 

In  descending  from  the  cold  and  lofty  plains  of 
Oruro,  the  green  verdure  begins  to  appear  when 
you  enter  the  vale  of  Arque,  where  is  experienced 


167 

an  atmosphere  which  is  loaded  with  fragrance ; 
and  in  passing  through  this  valley  you  meet  witfh 
a  cluster  of  cottages  and  flour  mills,  embosomed 
among  the  most  beautiful  fruit  and  forest  trees. 
At  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  from  Arque  stands  the 
city  of  Oropesa,  or  Cochabamba,  (S.  lat.  18°  31'.) 
the  capital  of  the  intendency.  It  is  situated  in  a 
beautiful  plain  near  the  river  Sacabo.  The  roads 
leading  into  the  city  are  planted  with  lofty  forest 
trees,  resembling  the  finest  avenues  of  Versailles. 
The  city  is  square,  and  the  streets,  which  are  spa- 
cious, cross  each,  other  at  right  angles.  It  con- 
tains five  convents  and  two  nunneries ;  the  former 
have  extensive  gardens,  which  are  well  cultiva- 
ted, and  the  fruit  orchards  abound  with  fine  fruit. 
The  population  of  the  city  is  about  25,000. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  intendency  consist  prin- 
cipally of  Mestizos  and  Cholos,  and  they  are  stri- 
kingly different  from  the  population  of  the  other 
provinces,  being  fairer  and  taller,  and  generally 
better  made.  The  fairness  of  their  complexion  is 
certainly  a  phenomenon,  the  cause  of  which  I  can- 
not explain.  They  are  industrious  farmers,  skil- 
ful mechanics,  and  possessed  of  superior  intelli- 
gence to  their  neighbours ;  and  during  the  bloody 
scenes  of  the  present  revolution,  they  nave  distin- 
guished themselves  as  intrepid  soldiers. 

The  eastern  section  of  the  intendency  is  called 
Valle  Grande,  which  is  a  most  productive  district. 
The  inhabitants  are  almost  all  fanners,  who 
raise  great  quantities  of  wheat,  which  is  sent  to 
the  markets  of  La  Paz  and  Potosi,  and  the  other 


168 

:old  countries;  and  cotton  also  is  cultivated  in 
great  abundance,  which  is  declared  to  be  of 
a  very  superior  quality.  They  cultivate  flax  also 
in  great  quantities,  but  make  no  other  use  of  it, 
except  to  extract  the  oil  from  the  seed.  This  oil 
is  a  great  article  of  consumption  in  the  churches, 
being  used  to  supply  the  lamps,  which  in  those  holy 
places  are  kept  constantly  burning.  The  farmers 
of  this  intendency  rear  a  breed  of  horses  equal  in 
beauty  and  strength  to  the  famous  Chilian  horses, 
and  also  vast  numbers  of  asses.  The  products  of 
this  country  are  carried  to  marjtet  on  the  backs 
of  asses;  they  have  no  other  means  of  transporta- 
tion, carriages  being  entirely  unknown.  Great 
numbers  of  asses  are  employed  in  this  business; 
they  are  loaded  with  huge  panniers  or  baskets, 
into  which  the  goods  are  put,  and  they  are  then 
turned  loose  in  the  street,  and  driven  along  in 
caravans  of  2  or  300.  In  this  way  are  carried  to 
La  Paz,  a  distance  of  240  miles,  in  great  abun- 
dance, fowls,  turkeys,  bread,  pastry,  sweetmeats, 
and  even  eggs. 

After  the  farmers,  the  next  principal  class  of  the 
population  are  manufacturers.  Of  the  cotton, 
there  were  manufactured  into  cloth,  in  the  city  of 
Oropesa,  in  1799,  1,500,000  lbs.  which  was  all 
consumed  in  the  country,  and  which  sells  at  the 
rate  of  from  4  to  10  shillings  per  yard.  Since  that 
year,  the  quantity  has  considerably  increased,  and 
in  the  late  European  wars  Cochabamba  and  Cuz- 
co  supplied  the  whole  country  with  manufac- 
tured goods.     There  are  manufactories  of  glass 


169 

bottles  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  of  earthen  ware, 
which  are  rude  and  coarse  indeed,  but  which  are 
carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent.  They  have 
also  manufactories  of  glue,  and  they  are  acquaint- 
ed with  the  art  of  dyeing.  During  the  revolution, 
they  supplied  themselves  with  muskets  of  their 
own  '  manufacture,  made  from  a  composition  of 
copper  and  lead.  They  have  some  machinery, 
but  all  of  their  own  invention. 

There  is  but  one  mine  here,  which  is  that  of 
Choque-camata,  or  bed  of  gold,  which  was  formerly 
rich,  but  has  been  abandoned. 

The  people  of  this  country  rarely  ride ;  indeed 
they  are  so  much  accustomed  to  walking,  that  it 
is  reported  of  one,  who  having  mounted  an  ass, 
and  undertaking  to  count  the  number  of  his  drove, 
forgot  to  reckon  that  on  which  he  was  seated,  and 
supposed  he  had  lost  one. 

The  fruits  of  Cochabamba  arid  Urubamba  in 
Cuzco,  are  certainly  the  finest  in  the  world.  Of 
peaches  they  have  10  or  12  different  species; 
some  so  delicate,  that  they  will  not  bear  transpor- 
tation ;  they  are  like  a  syrrup  in  the  mouth,  and 
possess  a  deliciousness  of  flavour,  which  1  shall 
not  attempt  to  describe.  Sweet  and  sour  oranges, 
wild  and  cultivated,  are  found  throughout  the 
whole  country,  on  the  east  of  the  Cordilleras, 
from  Cochabamba  to  Lima;  also,  pine  apples, 
bananas,  lemons,  pears,  apples,  plums,  figs,  grapes, 
olives,  and  in  short,  all  the  fruits  of  the  old  and 
new  continent.  Oranges  are  produced  all  the 
year  round,  the  same  tree  exhibiting  at  the  same 

Y 


170 

time,  flowers  and  ripe  fruit.  There  are  also  great 
varieties  of  fruits  peculiar  to  the  country ;  chiri- 
moyas,  which  are  exquisitely  delicious,  bananas, 
granadillas,  pacays,  &c.  The  trees  which  bear  the 
chirimoya,  are  of  the  size  of  the  apple  tree,  and 
the  blossoms  are  wonderfully  fragrant. 

Besides  the  fruits  of  this  district,  there  are  in- 
numerable flowering  shrubs,  which  perfume  the 
atmosphere ;  and  great  varieties  of  garden  stuffs, 
kitchen  vegetables,  &c. 

I  shall  be  more  minute  in  my  description  of  the 
productions  of  this  and  the  other  provinces,  after 
1  have  concluded  my  geographical  survey  of  the 
country. 


171 
LETTER  IV. 

LA    PAZ. 

This  lntendency  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  country  of  the  Amazons,  and  the  intend ency 
of  Cuzco  in  Low  Peru ;  on  the  west  by  those  of 
Puno,  or  Chuciuto,  and  Arequipa;  on  the  south 
by  Potosi  and  Charcas,  and  on  the  east  by  Co- 
chabamba  and  Moxos.  Its  population  is  about 
110,000,  without  including  Indians.  The  west- 
ern section  of  this  intendency  is  an  extensive 
plain,  bordering  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  great 
lake  Titicaca.  The  climate  is  cold,  on  account  of 
its  proximity  to  the  Cordilleras,  and  its  produc- 
tions are  principally  potatoes  and  barley.  The  east- 
ern part  includes  the  eastern  Cordillera,  and  its  de- 
clivities, together  with  those  fertile  plains  which 
extend  towards  Moxos  and  Cochabamba.  Of  this 
Cordillera,  the  highest  peaks  are  those  of  Anco- 
ma,  or  hoary  head,  in  the  north,  and  Ilimani  in  the 
south,  distant  about  100  miles  from  each  other. 
The  figure  of  Ilimani  is  pyramidal,  resembling 
in  many  points  the  famous  peak  of  Chimborazo, 
and  it  probably  belongs  to  the  same  chain  of 
mountains.  Its  top,  in  the  dry  season,  is  visible 
a  distance  of  150  miles:  in  the  rainy  season  it 
is  enveloped  in  clouds.  The  appearance  of  these 
mountains  is  wonderfully  grand,  and  particularly 
when  seen  in  the  night  time  from  the  city  of  La 
Paz,  situated  in  the  valleys  below,  at  a  distance 
©f  thirty  miles.      You    behold    a  lofty   barrier 


172 

of  mountains,  stretching  from  north  to  south, 
with  almost  an  uniform  elevation,  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  with  summits  crowned  with  perpetual 
snows  the  whole  extent,  except  at  the  pass  of  Chu- 
lumani;  and  the  sublimity  of  the  view  is  softened 
into  beauty,  when  you  contrast  their  hoary  sum- 
mits with  the  green  verdure  of  the  forests  on  their 
eastern  declivities,  and  the  fertile  valleys  at  their 
base. 

The  two  points  of  Ilimani  and  Ancoma  on  the 
east,  form  the  source  of  the  river  Beni,  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Amazon  5  on  the  west  their  wa- 
ters run  into  the  lake  Titicaca. 

This  intendency  is  divided  into  six  lesser  pro- 
vinces or  sub-delegations,  to  wit,  Cica-Cica,  Pa- 
cages,  Omazuegos,  Larecaja,  Apolobamba,  and 
Chulumani.  Of  these  provinces  the  three  first  are 
situated  on  the  west,  and  are  cold  and  unproduc- 
tive, but  abundant  in  metals. 

The  province  of  Cica-Cica  has  its  chief  town  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
coast  of  Arica,  and  extends  75  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  120  miles  from  east  to  west.  Its 
population  is  about  25,000.  This  province  is  laid 
down  erroneously  in  all  the  maps.  There  are  here 
rich  silver  mines,  and  in  the  village  of  Ayoayo 
there  is  a  salt  spring,  from  which  are  produced 
vast  quantities  of  salt,  and  of  the  finest  quality. 

The  provine  of  Pacages  lies  north-west  of  Cica- 
Cica;  its  chief  town  is  Caquiavire.  Its  extent 
from  east  to  west  is  168  miles,  and  from  north  to 
south  120  miles.     It  is  separated  from  the  coast  of 


173 

Arica  by  the  western  Cordillera*  There  are  in 
this  province  70  mines  of  silver  which  are  work- 
ed; there  is  also  a  mine  of  emeralds.  In  the  vil- 
lage of  Berenguela  there  is  a  quarry  of  fine  alabas- 
ter, which  is  beautifully  transparent.  It  is  fre- 
quently used  for  window  lights,  and  particularly  in 
the  churches ;  and  splendid  jet  d'  eaux  were  con- 
structed of  it  by  the  Jesuits  of  La  Paz ;  and  the 
upright  pipes  are  so  transparent  as  to  exhibit  the 
water  as  it  ascends  through  them.  Talc  is  also 
found  here  in  abundance. 

In  the  village  of  Tiaguanaco  are  situated  the 
ruins  of  a  palace  of  the  Incas,  which  are  now  little 
more  than  huge  stones  piled  one  upon  another. 

The  province  of  Omazuegos  is  bounded  by  La- 
recaja  on  the  north-west,  by  Chucuito  on  the 
west,  by  Pacages  on  the  south,  and  by  the  Cordil- 
lera on  the  east.  It  extends  120  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  from  48  to  60  miles  from  east  to  west ; 
the  chief  town  is  Hachacache,  54  miles  north-west 
of  La  Paz.  Near  this  place  is  a  famous  wall  of 
stone,  which  extends  from  the  top  of  the  Cordillera 
to  the  shore  of  the  lake  Titicaca,  a  distance  of 
about  30  miles;  commencing  at  theverge  of  the 
snows  on  the  mountain,  and  losing  itself  in  the 
lake.  It  was,  no  doubt,  a  work  of  the  Incas  ;  but 
its  object  has  never  been  explained.  Its  height 
at  present  is  uniformly  about  four  feet ;  it  has  suf- 
fered very  little  injury  from  time.  About  8  miles 
south  of  this  wall  are  situated  a  cluster  of  Indian 
cottages,  which  must  have  been  erected  also  in 
the  times  of  the  Incas.  They  are  construct- 
ed    of   stones,   neatly   fitted    together,    and   the 


171 

doors,  or  entrances,  are  observed  to  be  remarka- 
bly small.  There  are  some  buildings  among  them 
which  are  higher  than  the  rest ;  perhaps  40  feet 
high,  and  which  resemble  towers.  These  are  not 
built  of  stone,  but  of  a  kind  of  cement,  the  compo- 
sition of  which  is  not  known,  and  upon  which  the 
operations  of  the  elements  have  made  no  impres- 
sion. They  are  round,  without  doors,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  tombs.  These  monuments  of  the 
Incas  are  as  indistructible  as  those  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  are  constructed  after  their  fashion. 

In  this  province  is  situated  the  village  of  Capa- 
cavana,  which  is  a  consecrated  place ;  where  the 
devout  Catholics,  even  from  Lima  and  Salta,  resort 
to  pay  their  worship  to  the  virgin  Copacavana. 
The  church  is  fine,  and  constructed  of  stone,  ac- 
cording to  the  regular  rules  of  architecture.  The 
riches  of  the  church  it  is  impossible  to  calculate. 
It  has  a  chandelier  of  silver,  with  365  branches, 
one  for  every  day  in  the  year.  The  virgin  is 
placed  on  a  wheel,  which  turns  round  to  present 
her  divine  countenance  to  every  part  of  the 
church.  She  is  covered  with  diamonds,  pearls, 
and  precious  stones,  and  every  sort  of  rich  jew- 
elry, which  is  accumulated  by  the  donations  of 
the  devotees.  All  this  wealth  is  shamefully  dis- 
sipated by  the  monks  of  St.  Augustine,  who  have 
the  custody  of  the  virgin,  and  who  have  a  convent 
in  the  place.  This  situation  is  much  sought  for  by 
the  ecclesiastics  all  over  the  country,  as  it  affords 
them  a  fine  opportunity  for  thieving. 

In  this  province  there  arc  several  mines  of  sil- 


175 

ver ;  also  of  quicksilver,  in  a  mountain  called  Co- 
abilque,  near  the  Estancia  de  Carbiza.  This 
mine,  when  it  was  first  opened,  afforded  great 
quantities  of  quicksilver,  but  it  awakened  the  nar- 
row jealousy  of  the  vice-royalty  of  Lima,  within 
which  it  was  then  included,  and  the  working  of  it 
was  prohibited,  in  order  that  the  government 
might  enjoy  the  monopoly  of  the  mine  of  Huanca- 
velica.  In  Spanish  America  the  court  of  Madrid 
reserves  to  itself  the  exclusive  right  of  selling  mer- 
cury to  the  miners,  and  the  quantity  of  silver  pro- 
duced depends  very  much  upon  the  quantity  and 
price  of  this  article.  In  several  other  parts  of  this 
province,  in  Pucurani  and  Guarina,  quicksilver  has 
been  found.  The  bottom  of  the  mountains  in  this 
province  is  full  of  silver  mines,  but  one  only  is 
worked. 

The  great  lake  Titicaca  is  situated  on  the  west 
of  this  province.  It  lies  30  miles  west  of  the  city 
of  La  Paz,  and  the  intervening  country  is  a  level 
plain.  This  lake  is  about  240  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence ;  its  medium  width  is  about  30  miles,  and  its 
principal  direction  is  north-west  and  south-east. 
It  contains  several  beautiful  islands,  which  are  fer- 
tile, producing  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  &c. 

The  north  part  of  the  lake  is  mild  and  tempe- 
rate, and  Orurillo,  and  other  villages,  on  the  north- 
ern extremity  exhibit  some  lofty  trees,  and  consi- 
derable vegetation.  The  shores  of  the  lake  are 
fertile,  except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
Cordilleras,  where  the  climate  is  cold,  and  the  soil 
comparatively  unproductive.      The  temperature 


176 

depends  altogether  upon  the  proximity  of  the  snowy 
mountains.  On  leaving  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
you  find  a  sensible  increase  of  heat,  in  travelling 
even  three  .miles.  The  borders  of  the  lake  are 
beautifully  picturesque,  and  covered  with  villages 
and  cultivated  fields. 

This  lake  abounds  with  fine  fish,  particularly 
the  Bogelia,  and  on  its  shores  and  islands  are 
found  great  numbers  of  water  fowl  of  various 
species. 

Nature  has  pointed  out  this  great  body  of  water 
as  the  channel  of  an  extensive  commerce  among 
the  interior  Provinces,  and  between  them  and  the 
ocean,  but  it  has  been  neglected.  From  the  west- 
ern shores  of  this  lake  to  Arequipa  it  is  75  miles, 
and  from  that  city  to  the  ocean  60  miles;  makii  g 
the  whole  distance  to  the  ocean  135  miles;  and 
although  there  is  nothing  but  a  mule  road  at  pre- 
sent, it  might  easily  be  made  into  a  good  carriage 
road,  as  the  Cordillera  here  is  much  broken.  The 
mode  of  transportation  is  altogether  on  the  backs 
of  mules  :  these  animals  attain  an  extraordinary 
size  on  the  coast,  and  they  will  carry  400  weight 
each,  travelling  unshod  over  the  rough  roads,  with 
great  expedition,  and  without  stopping  to  feed,  for 
a  distance  of  36  miles. 

At  present  the  lake  is  not  at  all  navigated,  ex- 
cept by  the  Indians  in  their  canoes  for  the  pur- 
poses of  fishing.  On  the  south,  it  has,  as  1  have 
before  stated,  the  outlet  of  the  river  Desaguadero, 
which  empties  into  the  lake  of  Paria,  within  130 
miles  of  Potosi.   The  lake  Titicaca  and  this  river. 


177 

together,  afford  navigable  waters  for  a  distance 
of  262  miles,  and  they  lie  directly  in  the  route 
from  Buenos  Ayres,  by  Potosi,  to  Lima  and  the 
Pacific  ocean ;  and  at  the  distance  of  40  miles  up 
the  river  from  Paria,  stands  the  city  of  Oruro,  the 
center  of  the  inland  commerce  of  the  Provinces. 

The  Province  of  Larecaja  is  situated  north  of 
the  city  of  La  Paz.  It  extends  from  east  to  west 
354  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  90  miles.  This 
Province  begins  atAncoma,  the  north  peak  of  the 
Cordilleras,  and  extends  north  to  the  Province  of 
Carabaya  in  Low  Peru.  It  is  very  irregular  and 
mountainous,  full  of  impetuous  rivers  which  form 
the  source  of  the  river  Beni,  one  of  the  principal 
branches  of  the  Amazon.  Its  chief  town  is  Zo- 
rata,  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  Cordilleras, 
and  which  contains  10  or  12,000  white  inhabitants, 
who  are  principally  engaged  in  working  the  gold 
mines  of  the  Province.  The  whole  Province  con- 
tains 32  small  towns  or  villages ;  .the  climate  is 
varied,  according  to  the  elevation  of  the  moun- 
tains, but  is  generally  temperate ;  the  rivers  are 
uncommonly  rapid  and  boisterous  in  their  course, 
and  full  of  cataracts.  The  ridges  of  the  moun- 
tains as  you  go  north  from  Ancoma,  are  full  of  mines 
of  gold,  and  in  the  villages  of  Ananea  and  Yani 
there  are  rich  mines  which  are  worked.  It  is  a 
remarkable  fact  in  the  geological  history  of  this 
territory,  that  the  gold  mines  commence  at  Ancoma 
(lat.  15°  S.)  and  only  occur  as  you  travel  north 
and  east;  while  towards  the  south  is  situated  the 
region  of  silver.     The  peak  of  Ancoma,  like  the 

Z 


170 

equator,  divides  this  metallic  region  into  two 
hemispheres,  that  of  gold  on  the  north  and  silver 
on  the  south. 

The  gold  in  the  mines  is  found  embedded  in 
white  and  blue  quartz,  and  frequently  combined 
with  other  metals.  It  is  frequently  found  united 
with  silver,  and  the  miners  do  not  understand  the 
mode  of  separating  them.  The  price  of  this  gold 
is  less  than  that  obtained  by  the  washings,  and  com* 
monly  varies  from  12  to  $14  per  ounce. 

The  mode  of  separating  the  gold  is  very  similar 
to  that  employed  at  Potosi,  in  extracting  the  silver 
from  its  ores;  but  the  operation  is  much  more 
rude  and  slovenly.  The  ores  are  in  the  first  place 
broken  into  small  pieces,  and  then  ground  to  a 
powder,  which  is  mixed  with  quicksilver  until  it 
forms  an  amalgam,  and  the  quicksilver  is  then  eva- 
porated, leaving  the  metal,  which  is  cast  into 
ingots. 

In  this  province,  and  the  neighbouring  province 
of  Carabaya,  in  Low  Peru,  are  the  famous  rivers 
where  the  pure  washed  gold  is  found,  and  of  which 
I  shall  particularly  speak. 

In  crossing  the  Cordilleras  to  the  east,  at  the 
distance  of  36  miles  from  Ancoma,  you  meet  with 
the  source  of  the  river  Tipuani,  which  afterwards 
takes  the  name  of  Beni.  This  river  pours  down 
from  the  Cordilleras  like  a  torrent,  and  flows 
with  an  impetuous  and  roaring  current  the  dis- 
tance of  120  miles,  through  the  narrow  defiles 
of  the    mountains,   in   a  northwardly  direction, 


179 

to  the  village  of  Tipuani.  In  descending  from 
the  Cordilleras  the  distance  of  20  miles,  you 
enter  a  region  where  trees  and  vegetation  begin  to 
appear;  and  as  you  proceed  northward  you  find  a 
country  covered  with  thick  forests,  wild  barley, 
bananas,  sugar  canes,  and  all  the  various  produc- 
tions of  the  Amazons ;  with  birds  of  every  variety 
of  plumage,  and  innumerable  monkeys.  The  roads 
here  are  extremely  rough,  and  impassable  except 
on  foot,  or  on  the  backs  of  mules. 

On  the  banks  of  the  river  Tipuani  are  found 
abundance  of  gold  in  the  most  extraordinary  man- 
ner, and  in  wonderful  purity,  it  being  23^  carats,  1 J 
carat  finer  than  the  standard  of  the  United  States 
coin.  The  gold  is  commonly  found  in  little  grains 
of  the  size  of  barley  corns,  but  sometimes  in  large 
lumps.  The  miner  sinks  a  large  shaft,  close  by  the 
edge  of  the  river,  and  until  he  meets  with  a  pan 
of  slate,  which  is  called  Penna ;  the  water  is  then 
taken  out  by  the  Indians  with  buckets,  one  stand- 
ing above  another.  This  is  a  most  tedious  and 
expensive  operation,  and  frequently  occupies  two 
or  three  months  of  the  dry  season.  The  Indians  re- 
ceive for  this  service  six  shillings  ad  ay,  and  there  are 
frequently  200  employed  in  one  mine.  After  the  wa- 
teris  thrownout,  galleries  are  dug  in  different  direc- 
tions, according  to  the  course  of  the  metal ;  and 
in  these  the  gold  is  found,  mixed  with  a  hard  blue 
clay,  which  is  all  taken  out  together.  The  gold  is 
found  everywhere  on  the  banks  of  the  river;  I 
have  frequently  seen  the  experiment  tried,  and 
never  knew  it  fail.     This  gold  and  clay  together 


180 

are  put  into  a  canal  constructed  with  slate,  and 
whose  bottom  is  an  inclined  plane,  into  which  a 
current  of  water  is  introduced,  which  washes  away 
the  clay  and  earthy  particles,  and  leaves  the 
heaviest  particles  of  the  gold  behind,  which  are 
collected  and  put  into  sacks,  and  carried  to  La 
Paz,  where  they  are  cast  into  plates  or  ingots  of 
4  lbs.  each,  and  which  are  worth  %  1,000.  The 
light  grains  are  washed  away  by  the  water,  and 
are  afterwards  picked  up  by  the  poor  people,  who 
sometimes  employ  quicksilver  for  the  purpose. 
The  workmen  employed  in  the  mines  depend 
more  upon  their  opportunities  for  thieving  than 
upon  their  regular  wages  as  a  compensation  for 
their  services.  They  bave  a  dexterous  mode  of 
throwing  bits  of  gold  into  their  mouths  as  they 
pick  them  up,  in  which  way  they  collect  a  good 
deal  of  gold,  in  spite  of  the  vigilance  of  the 
overseers,  of  whom  there  is  one  appointed  over 
every  50  workmen. 

When  the  banks  of  the  river  are  very  high,  ca- 
nals are  dug  to  drain  off  the  water,  and  rocks  are 
sometimes  found  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
which  are  removed  by  blasting  with  powder,  and 
which  is  a  very  expensive  operation. 

Provisions  in  Tipuani  are  very  dear,  being 
brought  a  distance  of  2  or  300  miles ;  there  is  no 
agricultural  industry  carried  on  here,  although  the 
country  is  the  most  fertde  in  the  world.  Brandy 
is  much  drank;  it  is  an  article  of  prime  necessity 
among  the  miners,  and  is  sold  at  a  very  high  price. 

Jn  conducting  these  lavaderos  or  washings,  eve- 


181 

ry  operation  is  carried  on  in  the  most  expensive, 
rude,  and  slovenly  manner,  and  machinery  is  en- 
tirely unknown.  The  expenses  of  working  amine 
are  frequently  $14,000  in  three  months,  and  when 
we  add  to  this  the  quantities  of  gold  which  are 
pilfered  by  the  workmen,  it  is  evident  that  the 
mines  could  never  be  worked  with  profit  unless 
the  product  was  very  large.  According  to  the 
official  reports  of  the  Balanzario  at  La  Paz,  where 
the  gold  is  registered,  the  annual  product  from 
this  river  is  35,200  ounces ;  this  does  not  include 
the  quantity  appropriated  to  private  ornaments, 
nor  that  which  is  not  registered  by  the  proprie- 
tors, or  which  is  pilfered  by  the  workmen.  In  the 
neighbouring  province  of  Carabaya,  in  which  the 
river  is  of  the  same  character,  and  the  gold  of  the 
same  carats,  the  amount  which  has  been  register- 
ed, according  to  Alcedo,  is  $33,000,000.  This 
gold  is  never  sold  for  less  than  $16  an  ounce. 

These  mines  were  worked  in  the  times  of  the 
Incas,  who  appear  to  have  been  well  acquainted 
with  the  richest  mines  in  the  country  There  are 
frequently  found  near  these  mines,  tools  of  copper 
and  tin,  which  belonged  to  them.  Their  routes 
from  the  mines  were  straight  across  the  moun- 
tains to  their  capital. 

The  miners  here,  like  all  others,  have  their  al- 
ternations of  wealth  and  poverty.  They  are  fre- 
quently  extremely  rich.  There  were,  a  few  years 
since,  two  Portuguese,  named  Suares,  who  opened 
a  mine  which  yielded  them  vast  quantities  of  gold. 
They  had  many  boxes  filled  with  this  precious 


182 

metal  stored  away  in  their  houses.  They  fell  in 
the  revolution  of  Tupac  Amaru,  and  all  their  gold 
was  dissipated ;  but  after  the  troubles  were  over, 
the  Indians  returned  to  their  sons  $60,000  a  piece, 
which  had  been  saved. 

The  gold  is  conveyed  from  Tipuani  in  sacks  of 
skin,  which  are  carried  to  La  Paz  on  the  backs  of 
Indians,  and  with  perfect  security  from  robbery, 
through  the  thick  forests ;  the  usual  load  for  an 
Indian  carrier  is  5  arobas,  (125  lbs.) 

The  rivers  Challana,  Suches,  and  Vilaque, 
which  rise  in  the  same  chain  of  mountains,  unite 
at  Tipuani,  and  form  the  great  river  Beni. 
There  are  also  lavaderos,  or  gold  washings,  on 
these  rivers,  where  the  metal  is  found  in  abun- 
dance. 

The  town  of  Tipuani  is  situated  on  the  northern 
extremity  of  this  province,  and  here  the  river,  as 
it  assumes  the  name  of  Beni,  loses  its  rapid  course, 
and  flows  with  a  smooth  and  even  current  towards 
the  east.  Here  the  river  is  more  than  a  mile  wide, 
with  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  float  vessels  of 
considerable  burthen.  The  Indians  come  to  this 
town  in  their  canoes,  carrying  20  or  30  Indians, 
from  the  country  of  Moxos,  and  the  establishments 
of  the  Missions,  three  or  four  hundred  miles  down 
the  river.  There  is  no  doubt  that  from  the  town 
of  Tipuani,  the  river  of  Beni,  and  the  Amazon, 
with  which  it  unites,  are  navigable  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  In  the  revolution  of  Tupac  Amaru,  Es- 
trada, a  citizen  of  Zorata,  fled  from  the  country, 
and  went  down  this  river  in  a  canoe  to  Reyes,  a  vil- 


183 

lage  of  reduced  Indians,  where  he  got  on  board  of  a 
a  Portuguese  vessel,  and  went  to  Spain,  carrying 
with  him  immense  treasures. 

At  Tipuani  the  country  becomes  level,  and 
stretches  off  towards  the  north  and  east,  into  ex- 
panded plains  covered  with  forests,  and  exhibiting 
gentle  undulations  of  hills  clothed  in  luxuriant  ve- 
getation. From  the  top  of  the  mountain  of  Silla, 
near  Tipuani,  the  view  is  entirely  open  towards  the 
north  and  east.  I  do  not  imagine  that  a  finer 
country  can  be  presented  to  the  human  eye ;  and 
when  we  consider  that  in  the  neighbourhood  are 
mines  of  gold,  the  richness  of  which  has  never 
been  explored ;  that  here  are  groves  of  costly 
woods,  and  forests  of  the  finest  timber  trees,  with 
a  soil  of  great  fertility,  and  capable  of  producing 
all  the  various  productions  of  the  east,  not  except- 
ing the  cinnamon  and  spices  of  the  Indian  Isles, 
and  that  all  these  things  are  seated  at  the  head, 
and  on  the  borders  of  waters  navigable  to  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  we  must  be  satisfied  that  the  bright- 
est visions  of  fancy  can  scarcely  portray  the  fu- 
ture riches  of  this  favoured  country ;  its  impor- 
tance to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States ;  the 
changes  which  will  be  wrought  by  its  indepen- 
dence in  the  political  economy  of  nations ; — in 
short,  the  floods  of  wealth  which  will  roll  down 
the  broad  bosom  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributary 
streams,  to  enrich  the  world  I 

The  Indians  who  resort  to  Tipuani  are  those  of 
Reyes,  Mapiri,  and  Lecos,  villages  recently  re- 
duced by  the  friars  of  St.  Augustine.     These  peo- 


J81 

pie  are  much  fairer  than  the  other  natives  of  this 
country,  are  neat  in  their  apparel,  and  clean- 
ly in  their  persons,  using  frequent  ablutions.  They 
have  manufactories  of  curious  fabrics  made  of 
the  bark  of  a  tree  common  in  the  country,  proba- 
bly the  paper  mulberry.  The  bark  is  pound- 
ed fine,  dissolved  in  water,  and  sized  with  some 
resins  of  the  country,  and  is  then  made  into  a 
fabric  resembling  coarse  paper,  and  which  is 
made  in  a  similar  manner.  This  fabric  is  used 
for  the  various  purposes  of  clothing.  They  also 
manufacture  a  stuff  of  the  wild  cotton,  which 
is  produced  in  abundance  in  their  forests.  Ano- 
ther kind  is  made  of  the  plumage  of  beautiful 
birds,  interwoven  with  twine.  They  also  make  a 
species  of  tapestry,  not  unlike  the  hangings  of  the 
parliament  house  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  which  is 
wove  the  figures  of  men  and  animals.  Also  combs 
of  curious  workmanship,  of  a  kind  of  wood  called 
chonta,  which  resembles  ebony.  Their  skill  in 
archery  is  truly  surprising.  1  have  seen  them 
play  with  an  orange,  tossing  it  into  the  air,  and 
hitting  it  with  their  arrows,  and  keeping  it  from 
the  ground,  for  an  hour  together.  They  will 
hit  a  bird  on  the  wing  at  a  considerable  distance, 
and  with  unerring  certainty.  Their  arrows  are 
tipped  with  the  chonta  wood,  and  in  war  are  poi- 
sonedi  These  Indians  are  very  fond  of  iron  in- 
struments, and  will  barter  their  beautiful  fabrics 
for  tools  of  any  kind.  Their  character  is  gener- 
ally mild  and  peaceable  ;  they  are  entirely  under 
the  subjection  of  their  Friars.    In  the  north  part 


185 

ef  this  province  are  situated  the  villages  of  Consa- 
ta  and  Charasani,  inhabited  by  the  famous  pedes* 
trians,  of  whom  I  have  before  spoken. 

The  province  of  Apolobamba  is  situated  north 
of  that  of  Larecaja,  following  the  range  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras. It  is  240  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
120  miles  from  east  to  west.  This  province  is  ex- 
tremely rude  and  mountainous  on  the  west;  on 
the  east  it  slopes  off  into  extensive  plains  to  the 
river  Tuychi.  Its  population  amounts  to  30,000, 
and  consists  principally  of  civilized  Indians. 
There  are  a  few  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  who  are 
proprietors  of  large  plantations.  It  contains  eight 
small  towns  or  villages,  and  its  chief  town  is  St.  An- 
tonio de  Aten.  The  north-eastern  part  of  this 
province  borders  on  the  country  of  the  Amazons. 

In  this  province  there  is  an  extensive  cultivation 
of  cocoa,  which  is  equal  to  that,  of  Sochonosco  in 
Mexico,  which  is  esteemed  the  best  in  the  world. 
It  is  an  article  of  great  consumption  among  the 
people  of  this  country;  its  price  is  $1  a  pound. 
Rice,  cotton,  wax,  &c.  are  produced  in  abundance. 

The  province  of  Chulumani  is  situated  east  of 
the  city  of  La  Paz.  It  extends  150  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  90  miles  from  east  to  west.  It 
contains  twenty  small  towns.  Its  chief  town  is 
Coroyco,  situated  on  the  east  of  the  Cordillera. 
In  this  province  are  the  haciendas,  or  plantations 
of  coca,  by  which  the  whole  country  is  supplied 
with  this  article.  It  is  the  tobacco  of  the  Indians, 
used  universally  by  them,  but  never  by  the  whites. 
It  is  the  leaf  of  a  small   tree,  which  is   chew- 

2  A 


186 

ed.  They  are  plucked  in  May  and  November,  and 
sometimes  three  times  a  year,  dried  in  the  sun,  then 
tied  up  in  bundles  of  22  lbs.  each,  pressed,  steeped 
ed  in  lye,  and  sent  into  the  market  for  use.  A  bun- 
dle is  worth  from  8  to  Si 2.  Its  sales  amount  at 
least  to  $ 4,000,000  annually  at  La  Paz,  and  it  con- 
stitutes a  great  branch  of  the  trade  of  this  city. 
Its  taste  is  bitter;  it  is  warming  to  the  stomach, 
and  a  sudorifick  to  those  who  are  not  accus- 
tomed to  it.  It  is  an  article  of  the  first  neces- 
sity to  the  Indian ;  he  cannot  labour  without  it, 
and  prefers  it  to  his  food.  Coffee  is  produced, 
here,  which  is  occasionally  drank,  but  not  so 
abundantly  as  chocolate,  which  is  the  universal 
morning  beverage  of  the  country.  There  are 
some  vineyards  here,  but  not  very  extensive.  This 
province  being  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  coca, 
the  provisions  are  brought  from  the  neighbouring 
countries. 

The  city  of  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  the  Intenden- 
cy,  is  situated  in  latitude  16°  30'  south,  180  miles 
cast  of  the  Pacific  coast.  It  was  founded  by  the 
licentiate  Gasca,  after  the  battle  of  Guarina,  at 
the  period  of  the  conquest.  It  stands  on  the 
site  of  an  ancient  Indian  village,  called  in  the 
Aymara  dialect,  Choka-Yapoo,  meaning/arm  of  po- 
tatoes, and  not  of  gold,  as  some  historians  have  as- 
serted. The  Aymara  language  was  only  spoken 
in  this  section  of  the  country,  an  ignorance  of 
which  fact  has  led  the  celebrated  Humboldt  into 
an  error  when  he  says,  "  That  from  the  plain 
of  Tiahuanaco,  situated   between  the    cities   of 


187 

Cuzco  and  La  Paz,  descended  numerous  and  pow- 
erful tribes,  who  carried  their  arms,  language,  and 
arts  even  to  the  northern  hemisphere."  And  be- 
sides, the  most  fertile  countries  are  not  in  the 
north,  but  in  the  south:  to  wit,  Cochabamba,  Tu- 
cuman,  and  Chili. 

This  city  is  sometimes  known  in  that  country 
under  the  name  of  Chookeago.  It  is  situated  in  a 
hollow,  considerably  below  the  elevation  of  the 
plains  which  extend  from  the  Cordilleras  to  the  lake. 
You  approach  the  town  by  a  gradual  descent  of 
three  miles,  and  the  whole  city  stands  before  you, 
appearing  «  one  red,'  the  roofs  of  the  houses  being 
covered  with  red  tile.  The  city  is  divided  by  the 
river  Chookeago,  which,  rising  in  the  Cordilleras, 
takes  a  southerly  direction,  bending  round  the 
base  of  llimani,  and  then  runs  north,  until  it 
unites  with  the  Tipuani.  In  the  city  there 
are  four  stone  bridges  across  the  river.  The 
streets  are  rectangular,  paved,  and  of  convenient 
width.  The  dwelling-houses  are  principally  built 
of  stone,  of  two  and  three  stories  high ;  and  ma- 
ny of  them  exhibit  much  taste  and  elegance  in 
their  structure.  In  the  public  Square,  there  are 
some  splendid  edifices,  and  in  the  centre  of  the 
Square  stands  a  fountain  of  water  constructed  of 
transparent  alabaster ;  and  indeed  there  are  foun- 
tains at  the  corners  of  almost  every  street.  There 
are  five  convents,  three  nunneries,  and  five  paro- 
chial churches,  and  these  convents  and  nunne- 
ries are  extremely  rich.  In  the  nunnery  of  Con- 
cebidas,  there  is  a  figure  of  the  sun,   for   exhi- 


188 

biting  the  Host,  made  of  gold  and  diamonds, 
and  standing  on  a  pedestal  of  solid  gold  of  a 
yard  and  a  half  high.  The  rays  of  the  sun  are 
gold  studded  with  brilliants.  The  Cathedral 
is  full  of  silver;  the  front  of  the  altar  even  to  the 
roof,  is  covered  with  this  precious  metal.  The 
cups  of  the  sacrament  are  of  pure  gold.  The 
bells  of  the  Church  are  large;  for  ringing  them  at 
funerals,  a  duty  is  paid,  which  is  $100  when  the 
great  bell  of  the  Cathedral  is  tolled. 

The  literary  institutions  consist  of  one  poor 
college ;  but  what  I  must  not  omit — for  it  is  cre- 
ditable to  the  humanity-  and  intelligence  of  the  ci- 
tizens— is  an  alms-house,  where  the  poor  are  en- 
tertained. In  traversing  the  streets,  you  as  rarefy 
meet  a  beggar  as  in  the  city  of  New- York.  This 
is  the  only  institution  of  the  kind  to  be  found  in 
South  America. 

The  climate  of  La  Paz  is  cold,  although  it  is 
mild  at  a  little  distance  from  the  city,  as  you  recede 
from  the  Cordilleras.  The  city  stands  at  the  base 
of  the  lofty  peak  of  Ilimani,  which  almost  overlooks 
it,  and  whose  snowy  summit  and  verdant  sides  ex- 
hibit a  fine  view.  This  mountain  seems  obnox- 
ious to  thunder  storms,  which  are  frequent  on  its 
aerial  top,  and  which  at  times  greatly  enhance  its 
native  sublimity.  The  plains  surrounding  the  city 
are  clothed  in  perpetual  verdure,  and  are  very 
fertile,  supplying  the  city  with  potatoes,  barley 
and  vegetables.  The  markets  of  this  city  are 
reckoned  the  best  in  Upper  Peru :  the  supply  of 
fresh  fish  from  the  lake  and  the  ocean,  is  constant 


189 

and  abundant :  fruits  are  plenty  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year:  wines  and  brandies  are  supplied  in 
abundance  from  the  Pacific  coast,  sugar  from  Cuz- 
co,  and  wheat  from  Cochabamba.  At  a  distance 
of  20  or  30  miles  below  the  city,  on  the  banks  of 
the  river,  are  some  flourishing  vineyards,  produc- 
ing red  and  white  grapes,  from  which  considerable 
quantities  of  wine  are  made.  There  is  a  great 
scarcity  of  fuel  here;  that  which  is  used  is  char- 
coal, and  not  unfrequently  the  excrement  of  ani- 
mals. It  was  one  mile  from  this  city  that  a  mass 
of  pure  gold  was  found  by  an  Indian  as  he  was 
bathing  in  the  river,  which  was  valued  at  $11,^69. 
It  was  purchased  by  the  Viceroy  Castelfuerte,  and 
sent  as  a  present  to  his  sovereign. 

The  population  of  this  city  is  about  40,000.  In 
the  rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru  it  suffered  severely, 
but  having  recovered  its  ancient  prosperity,  its  si- 
tuation was  such  as  I  have  described  it  in  1808. 
It  was  in  this  city  that  the  fire  of  the  revolution 
first  burst  forth,  and  here  it  has  burned  the  bright- 
est. Inhabited  by  a  brave  and  high  spirited  peo- 
ple, many  possessing  splendid  fortunes,  and  some 
of  noble  blood,  it  has  been  the  scene  of  the  most 
fearful  and  desperate  struggles  for  independence. 
The  hurricane  of  war,  atone  period,  swept  its  po- 
pulation into  the  desert,  where  they  fell  either  by 
famine  or  the  sword.  At  another  time,  their  wells 
of  water  were  poisoned  by  infernal  conspirators, 
and  a  barrack  of  patriot  soldiers  was  treache- 
rously blown  up,  and  300  men  perished.  It  was 
this  devoted  town  that  the  monster,  Goyeneche, 


190 

converted  into  a  human  slaughter-house,  butcher- 
ing the  miserable  inhabitants  with  his  own  hands. 
Unhappy  city  of  my  birth !  the  period  of  thy  suf- 
ferings is  hastening  to  a  close ;  already  the  thunder 
of  war  is  dying  away  in  the  distance  ;  brighter  days 
begin  to  dawn  upon  thee,  and  soon  shall  thy  de- 
serted streets  resound  with  the  enlivening  hum  of 
business ;  and  from  the  ashes  of  thy  slaughtered 
heroes,  there  shall  arise  a  people  to  emulate  their 
virtues,  and  to  restore  to  thee  more  than  all  thy 
ancient  splendour  I 


191 
LETTER  V. 

SANTA  CRUZ  DE  LA  SIERRA,  OR  PUNO. 

This  Intendency  is  bounded  on  the  North  by 
Chiquitos  and  Moxos ;  on  the  West  by  Charcas  and 
Cochabamba;  on  the  South  by  the  Chiriguanos 
and  other  tribes  of  Indians,  and  on  the  East  by 
Chiquitos.  The  population  is  100,000.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  departments,  Misque  and  Santa 
Cruz,  from  which  the  Intendency  takes  its  name. 

The  department  of  Misque  is  bounded  by  the 
Cordilleras  on  the  North,  by  Cochabamba  on  the 
West,  by  Charcas  on  the  South- West  and  South, 
and  by  Santa  Cruz  on  the  East.  Its  climate  is 
warm.  The  chief  town,  which  is  of  the  same 
name,  stands  in  a  fine  valley  of  eight  leagues  in 
circumference,  and  its  population  amounts  to 
1 2000.  This  is  an  extremely  fertile  province,  pro- 
ducing in  great  abundance,  corn,  sugar,  grapes, 
bees-wax,  and  honey.  Within  this  province  is  si- 
tuated the  Lake  of  Xaraes,  which  is  of  considera- 
ble magnitude,  and  well  stored  with  fish.  Misque 
in  former  times  was  a  town  of  some  importance, 
but  it  has  latterly  fallen  into  decay :  there  being 
no  mines  in  its  neighbourhood,  many  of  its  inha- 
bitants have  removed  to  other  places. 

The  province  of  Santa  Cruz  is  situated  east  of 
Misque.  The  Chief  town,  which  is  of  the  same 
name,  and  is  the  capital  of  the  Intendency,  was 
founded  by  Chaves,  one  of  the  companions  of  Pi- 


192 

zarro  in  1560,  in  latitude  18°  4'  South,  but  was  af- 
terwards, in  1575,  removed  to  its  present  position 
in  latitude  17°  49'44"South,  and  62°  24'  West  lon- 
gitude from  Paris',  at  the  foot  of  a  small  range  of 
mountains  on  the  North  of  the  Intendency.  Some 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  former  town  did  not  ac- 
company the  others  in  the  removal,  but  construct- 
ed a  barque,  in  which  they  sailed  down  the  river 
Mamore,  and  thence  into  the  Amazon,  and  finally 
arrived  at  Cadiz. 

The  productions  of  this  province  are  the  "same 
as  those  of  Misque,  but  the  culture  of  them  has 
been  neglected.  There  are  no  mines  in  the  pro- 
vince. 

IHOXOS  AND  CH1QUIT05. 

These  provinces,  which  were  established  by 
the  Jesuits,  have  been,  since  their  expulsion,  sub- 
jected to  a  military  government.  Moxos  was  con- 
quered from  savage  tribes  by  the  Incas,  and  made 
part  of  their  great  empire.  It  extends  from  North 
to  South  360  miles,  and  nearly  the  same  distance 
from  East  to  West.  It  is  bounded  by  the  country 
of  the  Amazons  on  the  North,  by  Cochabamba 
and  La  Paz  on  the  West,  by  Chiquitos  on  the 
South,  and  on  the  East  by  the  dominions  of  Bra- 
zil. This  province  is  watered  by  three  rivers, 
Beni,  Mamore,  and  Santa  Cruz,  which  take  their 
rise  in  the  eastern-  Cordillera,  and  flow  into  the 
Amazon. 


193 

There  are  in  this  province  15  villages,  which 
are  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  above  mentioned 
rivers,  and  are  regularly  laid  out.  The  houses  are 
of  wood.  The  population  of  the  province  is 
22,000. 

Chiquitos  is  separated  from  Moxos,  on  the  North 
by  the  mountains  of  Tapacares ;  on  the  West  it  is 
bounded  by  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  on  the  North 
by  the  forests  of  Zamucas,  and  on  the  East  by  sa- 
vage Indians.  It  contains  10  villages,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  20,000. 

The  two  provinces  of  Moxos  and  Chiquitos  ex- 
tend from  14°  to  20°  South  latitude,  embracing  a 
fine  and  fertile  tract  of  country.  In  the  province 
of  Chiquitos  there  is  a  beautiful  valley  of  120  miles 
in  extent.  In  almost  every  village,  there  are 
churches  of  regular  architecture,  richly  decorated, 
and  what  is  particularly  worthy  of  mention,  are 
the  choirs  of  musical  instruments  in  every  church, 
such  as  organs,  harps,  violins,  and  which  are 
played  with  admirable  skill  by  the  Indians,  who 
are  carefully  taught  sacred  music  by  the  friars. 

In  these  Indian  villages  or  missions,  there  are 
manufactories  of  superior  cotton  fabrics,  such  as 
calicoes,  diapers,  and  a  stuffresembling  merseilles. 
The  Indians  are  excellent  cabinet-makers,  making 
beautiful  furniture  out  of  the  fine  woods  which  are 
abundant  in  the  country.  They  cultivate  cocoa 
and  coffee;  make  great  quantities  of  white  and 
yellow  wax,  which  is  an  article  of  great  demand 
for  the  churches.  The  king  and  the  priests  have 
all  the  profits  of  their  industry:  the  government 

2  B 


194 

has  a  factory  in  the  country,  where  all  the  manu- 
factured goods  and  the  products  of  the  soil  are 
collected,  and  from  whence  they  are  sent  to  Char- 
cas  and  other  markets  to  be  sold. 

The  climate  of  these  provinces  is  like  that  of 
the  East  Indies,  with  half-yearly  alternations  of 
rainy  and  dry  weather,  and  the  productions  are 
similar.  Cinnamon  is  produced  in  abundance 
and  when  cultivated,  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  Cey- 
lon. The  forests  are  full  of  balsamic,  resinous, 
and  odoriferous  trees.  Here  are  found  Peruvian 
bark,  vainilla,  ginger,  gum  copal,  and  all  sorts  of 
resins  and  healing  balsams.  The  forests  of  these 
provinces,  and  all  that  is  called  Montana  real,  are 
the  finest  botanic  gardens  in  the  world.  Birds  are 
found  of  almost  every  variety,  and  of  the  most 
beautiful  plumage :  there  being  no  unkind  winter 
here  to  destroy  them,  or  drive  them  into  warmer 
latitudes  There  are  some  beasts  of  prey,  and 
snakes  which  are  poisonous.  The  rivers  and  lakes 
abound  with  fish.  Honey  is  collected  in  great 
quantities  in  the  forests;  and  in  the  north  part 
of  Moxos,  there  is  found  the  silk  worm,  but  it  is 
not  cultivated ;  the  mulberry,  upon  which  it  feeds> 
is  a  common  tree  of  the  country. 

In  short,  throughout  the  whole  range  of  these 
provinces,  there  is  found  all  the  variety  of  animal 
and  vegetable  productions,  which  are  peculiar  to 
the  torrid  zone  in  any  region  of  the  globe.  In- 
deed, it  is  a  sufficient  eulogium  upon  the  climate 
and  the  soil  of  these  provinces,  that  they  were  se- 


195 

lected  rby  the  Jesuits  for  the  establishment  of  their 
missions. 

The  Indians  who  inhabit  this  country,  are  fairer 
in  complexion  and  better  made  than  those  of  any 
other  province.  By  nature  they  are  a  noble  race 
of  men ;  but  they  have  been  prostrated  by  the 
united  influence  of  the  government  and  the  church. 
They  are  subjected  to  odious  servitude,  and  they 
have  no  other  reward  but  their  bare  subsistence. 
Whatever  they  are  taught  is  only  with  a  view  to 
enlarge  their  capacity  to  minister  to  the  comforts 
and  luxuries  of  their  selfish  and  crafty  oppressors. 
They  are  carefully  kept  ignorant  of  the  Spanish 
language,  of  reading  and  writing,  in  order  that 
their  subjugation  may  be  complete  and  perpetual. 

ARICA  AND  MOQUEGUA. 

Although  the  provinces  I  have  described  are  all 
that  are  included  in  Upper  Peru,  I  deem  it  proper 
to  bestow  some  attention  upon  the  adjacent  Pacific 
coast,  and  the  ports  which  it  comprises,  as  they 
hold  an  important  commercial  relation  with  the 
interior  provinces.  The  vast  chain  of  mountains 
extending  through  this  country,  from  Cape  Horn 
to  North  America,  is  here  called  the  western  Cor- 
dillera of  the  Andes,  and  forms  a  barrier  which 
divides  what  is  called  La  Sierra,  or  the  cold  and 
lofty  regions,  from  the  temperate,  or  the  coast. 
Along  the  Pacific  coast,  for  an  extent  of  500 
leagues  from  the  deserts  of  Atacama  towards  the 
north,  it  never  rains,  nor  is  there  any  thunder  or 


196 

lightning.  This  singular  phenomenon  has  establish- 
ed here  a  perpetual  spring.  A  gentle  mist  or  dew 
falls  from  May  to  September,  to  moisten  and  fer- 
tilize the  earth,  and  water,  for  the  uses  of  the  in- 
habitants and  their  cattle,  and  for  the  purposes  of 
irrigation,  is  abundantly  supplied  at  all  times  from 
the  Cordilleras.  This  tract  of  country  along  the 
coast,  which  is  in  Width  not  more  than  6()  miles 
at  any  point,  produces  wheat,  wine,  oil,  sugar,  In- 
dian corn,  agi  or  Guinea  pepper,  and  cotton.  The 
principal  productions  are  wine  and  oil;  there  are 
many  vineyards  and  plantations  of  olives.  Cotton 
is  produced  all  the  year  round,  the  tree  bearing 
both  flowers  and  fruit  at  the  same  time;  the  an- 
nual yield  here  of  the  cotton  tree  is  at  least  dou- 
ble that  of  the  interior  provinces,  or  of  Asia,  where 
one  half  the  year  there  are  constant  rains,  and  the 
cotton  is  also  much  whiter  from  the  same  circum- 
stance. 

The  principal  ports  of  this  coast,  adjacent  or 
nearest  to  the  interior  provinces  of  Upper  Peru, 
are  Pisco,  in  lat.  13°  45'  S.  long.  76°  west  from 
Greenwich;  Camana,  Mollendo,  Quilca,  lat.  16° 
l^  S. ;  llo,  17°  36'  S. — this  is  a  fine  port,  with  good 
anchorage ;  Arica,  lat.  1 88  20'  S. ;  Iquique,  lat.  20° 
7'  S.  From  this  port  to  that  of  Arica,  the  inter- 
vening coast  is  high  and  clear.  The  port  of 
Iquique  is  very  commodious,  affording  good  an- 
chorage in  a  bay  of  about  6  miles  long,  with  from 
8  to  16  fathoms,  and  a  fine  sandy  bottom.  There 
is  a  small  Island  in  front  of  the  town,  and  the  usual 
place  of  anchorage  is  to  the  leeward  of  that,  be- 


197 

tween  two  small  rocks  which  appear  above  the 
water.  Cobija,  a  port  in  the  province  of  Ataca- 
ma,  in  Upper  Peru,  is  situated  in  lat.  22°  39'  S.  It 
is  to  these  ports  that  the  products  of  Arequipa, 
Cuzco,  La  Paz,  Cochabamba,  Potosi,  and  all  the 
towns  between  the  two  Cordilleras,  are  carried. 
And  in  these  ports,  the  English,  during  the  late 
continental  war,  carried  on  a  great  traffic,  in 
spite  of  the  prohibitions  of  the  Spanish  laws. 

I  have  already  remarked  that  the  metallic  re- 
gions of  this  country  are  near  the  coast.  The 
provinces  of  Arica  and  Moquegua  are  included  in 
the  intendency  of  Arequipa,  in  Low  Peru,  and  ex- 
tend 246  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  48  miles 
from  east  to  west.  In  this  tract  are  situated  the 
vallies  of  Moquegua,  Locumba,  and  Tacna. 

There  are  52  villages  in  these  provinces:  the 
chief  towns  are  Arica  and  Moquegua ;  the  popu- 
lation is  about  32,000,  of  whom  there  are  2821 
negro  slaves,  and  1872  free  negroes — the  remain- 
der are  whites,  Indians,  and  mulattoes. 

Arica  was  formerly  a  considerable  town,  but  it 
has  declined ;  it  contains  at  present  about  3000  in- 
habitants. The  houses  are  low,  with  flat  roofs, 
which  are  mostly  covered  with  mats.  The  prin- 
cipal production  of  this  province  is  agi,  or  Guinea 
pepper,  whose  annual  produce  amounts  to  about 
600,000  dollars. 

The  city  of  Moquegua  is  situated  in  the  interi- 
or, about  50  miles  east  of  the  port  of  Ilo,  in  a  val- 
ley extending  from  the  coast,  and  further  inland. 


198 

It  contains  about  12,000  inhabitants."  In  its  neigh- 
bourhood are  produced  annually  about  400,000 
gallons  of  wine,  besides  considerable  quantities  of 
oil.4  The  Count  of  Alastaya  resides  here,  who 
is  a  great  proprietor  of  vineyards.  The  val- 
leys of  Locumba  and  Tacna  also  produce  an 
equal  abundance  of  wine.  The  wine  is  principal- 
ly consumed  in  the  country,  and  great  quantities 
of  it  are  manufactured  into  brandy,  which  is  much 
drank. 

There  are  produced  here  two  varieties  of  wine, 
white  and  red,  and  of  different  qualities.  The  red 
wine,  when  kept  in  the  cellars  of  the  convents  or 
of  private  gentlemen,  for  any  considerable  time, 
becomes  of  a  fine  quality,  and  is  esteemed  by  con- 
noisseurs equal  to  the  wines  of  Spain.  The  price  of 
these  wines  in  La  Paz,  is  8  or  9  dollars  for  two 
arrobas  (50  lbs  ) ;  it  being  sold  by  weight.  The 
price  of  brandy  is  less.  The  mode  of  transporting 
these  liquors  into  the  interior  is  curious ;  it  is  car- 
ried in  goat-skins,  called  odres,  on  the  backs  of 
mules.  The  skins  are  taken  from  the  goats  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner :  the  animal  is  suspended 
alive  by  his  horns — the  skin  is  then  loosened  around 
the  neck,  and  stripped  off!  The  skin  is  afterwards 
dried,  and  partially  tanned,  then  tarred  on  the  out- 
side, when  it  becomes  fit  to  receive  the  liquor. 
Each  odre  will  commonly  hold  from  20  to  30  gal- 
lons. The  wine  is  preserved  in  the  vaults  of  the 
churches,  in  large  vats,  or  reservoirs,  lined  with 
clay,  and  which  will  contain  many  hogsheads :  it  is 


199 

kept  in  this  way  thirty  and  forty  years  and  longer ; 
wooden  casks  are  unused,  and  almost  unknown. 

The  agi  or  Guinea  pepper  is  an  article  in  great 
demand,  it  is  eaten  by  all  classes  of  people.  The 
price  is  from  4  to  $5  for  one  aroba  (25lbs.)  The 
price  of  cotton  is  10  or  12  shillings  for  an  aroba. 
These  are  the  prices  at  La  Paz ;  they  are  much 
lower  where  the  articles  are  produced,  the  ex- 
penses of  transportation  being  very  great.  They 
are  carried  to  market  on  the  backs  of  mules  and 
asses.  These  animals  are  bred  in  Tucuman  and 
are  brought  here  young;  they  are  fed  on  a  spe- 
cies of  tall  grass,  called  alfa-alfa,  which  is  very 
abundant,  and  upon  which  they  fatten  very  fast, 
attaining  to  extraordinary  strength  and  size.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  population  of  these 
provinces  are  muleteers. 

The  cochineal  is  found  in  its  native  state  alon« 
the  coast;  this  insect  feeds  upon  the  fruit  of  a 
small  tree,  called  nopal  or  hygopal  (indian  fig  tree,) 
and  which  is  designated  by  some  Botanists  under 
the  name  of  cactus  opuntia  maxima,  and  by  Linnaeus 
under  that  of  cactus  coccinellifer.  The  indians  use 
this  insect  in  dyeing  the  wool  of  the  Llama  and 
Alpacha,  and  which  do  not  lose  their  brilliant 
and  glossy  appearance.  The  use  of  the  cochineal 
as  a  dye-stuff,  was  known  in  the  times  of  the  In- 
cas ;  there  are  fabrics  and  paintings  at  Cuzco. 
made  in  ancient  times,  which  exhibit  the  same 
red  colours,  as  are  now  produced  by  the  cochi- 
neal. The  Spaniards  have  entirely  neglected  its 
cultivation  here,  although  the  climate,  them  be- 


200 

ing  no  rains,  is  much  more  favourable  for  its  suc- 
cessful production  than  in  Mexico,  where,  during 
the  rainy  season,  the  insects  are  obliged  to  be 
housed,  or  removed  into  districts,  in  which  the 
rains  occur  at  a  different  season  of  the  year. 

In  the  valleys  of  Tackna,  situated  a  few  leagues 
inland  from  the  port  of  Iquique,  there  are  many 
vineyards,  and  there  is  also  a  rude  manufactory  of 
glass.  The  vineyards  and  olive  plantations  in 
these  provinces,  are  manured  by  a  kind  of  yellow 
earth,  called  huano,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the 
excrement  of  sea  birds.  It  is  procured  from  two 
small  islands,  one  situated  near  Arica,  and  the 
other  in  the  bay  of  Iquique,  which  are  inhab- 
ited by  indians  and  negroes.  This  earth  is  so  fer- 
tilizing, that  it  is  supposed  to  enrich  the  soil  at 
least  one  hundred  fold. 

At  a  distance  of  about  six  miles  from  Iquique, 
are  situated  the  silver  mines  of  Huantajaya, 
which  are  surrounded  with  beds  of  rock  salt. 
These  mines  furnish  annually  from  45  to  52,000  lbs. 
of  silver.  In  1758  and  '89  there  were  found  in  the 
mines  belonging  to  the  family  of  Colonel  Loaysa, 
situated  here,  two  lumps  of  massive  silver,  one 
weighing  200  and  the  other  800  lbs.  There  are 
also  found  in  the  mountains  of  Pico,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, mines  of  silver  and  copper,  and  the  lat- 
ter in  abundance. 

Among  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  there  are  a 
great  number  of  free  negroes  and  mulattoes  who 
are  educated,  and  possess  independent  fortunes. 
The"  mulattoes  are  particularly  distinguished  for 


201 

their  vivacity  and  volubility.  They  are  fond  of 
learning,  and  boast  of  their  noble  blood  and  cha- 
racter. They  have  obtained  from  the  king  let- 
ters patent,  conferring  upon  them  the  dignity  and 
title  of  "  Don,"  as  they  esteem  it ;  and  which,  if 
omitted  by  any  one  in  addressing  them,  he  is 
immediately  reminded  of  it  by  his  Donship. 
They  are  excluded  from  the  professions  of  law 
and  the  church;  they  therefore  generally  apply 
themselves  to  physic,  which  they  practice  with 
more  quackery  than  skill.  They  are  frequently  to 
be  met  with  in  the  interior  cities  of  Peru,  boasting 
of  their  dignity  and  their  knowledge.  They  are 
cowards  in  war,  and  prefer  talking  to  fighting; 
they  cannot  endure  cold,  nor  the  hardships  of  a 
campaign.  In  the  rebellion  of  Tupac  Amaru,  two 
or  three  regiments  of  this  caste,  in  crossing  the 
cold  mountains  from  Lima  on  their  march  to  Cuz- 
co,  were  attacked  by  indians  early  in  the  morning, 
and  being  benumbed  by  the  cold,  they  were  una- 
ble to  use  their  muskets.  They  sent  in  a  flag  of 
truce  to  ask  an  armistice  until  the  sun  had  risen, 
which  was  refused,  and  they  were  totally  defeated. 


2C 


202 


LETTER  VI. 

i  shall  conclude  my  sketch  of  Upper  Peru, 
by  some  additional  remarks  upon  the  mines,  the 
climate,  soil,  productions,  and  commerce  of  that 
interesting  country. 

The  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  occurring  within 
15°  and  23"  south  latitude,  are  situated  at  the  fol- 
lowing places : 

GOLD  WASHINGS. 

Tipuani,  Carabaya,  Challana,  Vilaque,  and 
Chuquiaguillo. 

GOLD  MINES. 

Yani,  Ananea,  Consata,  Araca,  Rinconada,  Chi- 
loco,  Condo-Condo,  Choque-camata,  Pica,  Cica- 
Cica,  and  Azangaro. 

SILVER  MINES. 

Potosi,  Lipez,  Porco,  Huantajaya,  Aullagas, 
Caylloma,  Charoma,  Estarca,  Lampa,  Cerillos, 
Oruro,  Popo,  Chancani,  Puno,  Laycacota,  Pica, 
Verenguela,  Kinsachata,  Huyana-Potosi,  Chuqui- 
aguillo, Carangas,  and  Pichegua. 

There  are  mines  of  quicksilver  at  Pucarani  and 
Guarina;  and  platina  is  found  at  Morocollo,  in 
Low  Peru. 

The  quantity  of  the  precious  metals  extracted 
from  these  several  mines,  it  is  impossible  accu- 


203 

rately  to  estimate :  it  has  been  stated  at  about 
$  14,000,000  annually.  There  are  probably 
$6,000,000  coined  annually  at  Potosi  and  Lima, 
and  which  may  be  one  third  of  the  whole  quanti- 
ty of  metal  produced.  M.  Torres  states,  that  the 
quantity  of  coin  and  bullion  exported  annually 
from  Peru,  amounts  to  $  8,240,000. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  here  to  bestow  some 
remarks  upon  the  influence  of  these  metals  upon 
national  wealth  and  industry  in  Peru,  and  more  es- 
pecially, as  some  political  writers  of  Europe  main- 
tain that  the  precious  im  tils,  far  from  being  a  use- 
ful production  to  South  America,  are  the  fruitful 
source  of  evils  to  that  country ;  that  its  true  in- 
terests would  be  to  abandon  its  mines  of  gold  and 
silver,  and  devote  itself  to  agriculture  and  com- 
merce ;  and  that  the  working  of  mines  of  iron  and 
copper,  which  they  describe  as  things  of  intrinsic 
value,  would  be  of  greater  utility.  The  celebrated 
Humboldt, — to  whom  the  scientific  world  owe  so 
many  discoveries,  and  the  South  Americans,  a  rich 
tribute  of  gratitude  for  opening  to  the  world  the 
wonderful  resources  of  their  country, — has  ad- 
vanced these  sentiments,  and  urged  them  upon 
the  people  of  South  America  with  no  little  zeal. 
I  deem  them,  however  they  may  be  support- 
ed by  weight  of  authority,  to  be  clearly  falla- 
cious. 

The  precious  metals,  from  remote  antiquity  to 
the  present  time,  have  been  used  by  all  civilized 
nations  as  the  token  or  representative  of  wealth. 


204 

the  measure  of  value,  and  the  instrument  as  well 
as  an  article  of  exchange.  And  their  value  con- 
sists not  in  their  being  in  themselves  objects  of 
consumption,  or  articles  of  absolute  necessity  to 
the  existence  of  man,  but  because  all  nations  have, 
by  common  consent,  agreed  to  recognise  them  as 
the  universal  standard  and  measure  of  property  or 
things  of  value.  This  convention  of  nations  ere- 
ates  a  demand  for  them,  and  demand  is  undoubtedly 
the  ultimate  and  only  permanent  regulator  of  the  ex- 
changeable  value  of  all  commodities.  Some  political 
economists,  like  the  learned  Adam  Smith,  do  in- 
deed assert  that,  "  labour  is  alone  the  ultimate  and 
real  standard  by  which  the  value  of  all  commodities 
can-be  estimated."  Labour,  no  doubt,  is  one  of 
the  sources  of  value  or  wealth,  but  it  ought  not  to 
be  confounded  with  productions  which  are  in 
themselves  valuable.  There  is  certainly  too  much 
laborious  trifling  in  the  world,  to  admit  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  proposition  that  4  labour  is  the  on- 
ly and  ultimate  standard  of  value.'  But  to  prove 
this  proposition  to  be  false,  we  need  only  to  refer 
to  the  celebrated  writer  last  mentioned,  where  he 
says,  "  that  the  money  price  of  labour  is  regulated 
by  the  demand  for  labour."  So  it  seems  that  la- 
bour itself,  which  has  just  been  called  the  ultimate 
standard  of  value,  is  still  regulated,  even  in  the  opi- 
nion of  Dr.  Smith,  by  something  else,  which  is 
demand.  Labour  is  not,  therefore,  the  last  stand- 
ard ;  but  in  order  to  arrive  at  that,  we  must  pro- 
ceed one  step  further,  to  wit,  to  demand.     It  is 


205 

demand  then,  after  all,  that  regulates  the  value  of 
things.  According  to  the  vulgar  axiom, — and 
there  is  frequently  much  truth  in  the  sayings  of 
the  vulgar,  which  are  emphatically  the  concen- 
trated wisdom  of  ages, — "  a  thing  is  worth  what 
it  will  fetch."  Again,  Humboldt  says,  that  "  true 
wealth  consists  in  the  abundance  of  objects  of  con- 
sumption— in  that  of  things,  and  not  in  the  sign  by 
which  they  are  represented."  This  is  another  fal- 
lacy, which  is  also  supported  by  the  high  authori- 
ty of  Adam  Smith ;  indeed,  it  is  no  doubt  taken 
from  his  book,  for  he  says  that  "  real  riches  are 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  consumable  goods 
which  any  one  may  possess,  or  have  money  to  pur- 
chase." Why  the  wealth  of  this  individual  does 
not  consist  in  his  money  as  much  as  in  the  quantity 
of  goods  which  his  money  will  purchase,  and  why 
those  goods  must  be  consumable,  or  objects  of  con- 
sumption, I  am  at  a  loss  to  discover.  According 
to  my  views  of  this  subject,  ifealth  consists  in  abun- 
dance of  exchangeable,or  demandable  commodities.  If  this 
is  true,  and  also  that  demand  regulates  value,  it  is 
clear  that  gold  and  silver  are  articles  of  real  value 
and  component  parts  of  wealth.  There  are  cer- 
tainly no  articles  known  in  society  or  commerce 
that  are  in  greater  demand  than  the  precious  me- 
tals— that  men  will  endure  so  many  hardships,  or 
brave  so  many  dangers  to  obtain.  The  illustrious 
Locke,  who  thought  upon  this  subject  with  the 
same  correctness  that  he  did  upon  every  other  of 
which  he  treated,  "  considered  gold  and  silver  as 


206 

the  most  substantial  part  of  the  moveable  wealth 
of  nations." 

There  is  also  another  palpable  error  in  this 
proposition  of  Humboldt ;  he  says  that  "  gold  and 
silver  are  only  the  sign  by  which  things  are  repre- 
sented." To  measure  value,  is  not  the  only  office 
of  the  precious  metals  in  effecting  exchanges ; — 
as  a  yard,  for  instance,  is  the  measure  of  length. 
A  given  quantity  of  these  metals  is  considered  of 
equal  value  with  the  things  exchanged ;  if  I  pay 
$2  for  a  bushel  of  wheat,  the  seller  esteems  the 
cash  at  least  of  equal  value  to  the  wheat.  The 
precious  metals  then,  have  an  intrinsic  value  in- 
dependent of  the  legal  one  which  they  possess  as 
money. 

If  the  precious  metals  are  only  signs  of  value, 
then  are  Bank  notes,  or  paper  promises,  equally 
as  good  a  circulating  medium ;  a  proposition, 
which  I  apprehend  few  politicians  of  the  United 
States  will  seriously. maintain  at  the  present  time, 
but  which  has  been  confidently  asserted,  and  has 
no  doubt  aided  in  no  small  degree  in  introducing 
into  this  country  the  paper  money  system,  which 
is  now  producing  so  many  evils. 

That  a  demand  for  the  precious  metals  will  al- 
ways exist,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  from  their 
utility,  beauty,  and  scarcity,  according  to  Dr.  Smith, 
but  more  than  all,  from  the  circumstance  that  they 
have  been  adopted  by  all  civilized  nations  as  a 
circulating  medium — as  a  thing  to  exchange  for 
every  thing  else.     As  long  as  luxuries,  conven- 


207 

iences,  nay,  even  necessaries,  are  in  demand,  so 
long  will  gold  and  silver,  which  alone  can  procure 
them  all,  be  in  demand  also — unless,  indeed,  some- 
thing else  is  substituted  in  their  stead  as  money,  a 
thing  not  likely  to  happen.  Being  the  money  of 
the  world,  the  precious  metals  have  become  a 
real  and  substantial  necessary  of  life  to  all  classes 
of  society :  to  the  prince,  to  enable  him  to  carry 
on  the  operations  of  his  government;  and  to  the 
private  individual,  to  procure  for  him  the  neces- 
saries and  comforts  of  life.  If  not  the  immediate 
objects  of  consumption,  they  are  the  necessary 
agents  by  which  those  objects  are  procured.  In 
the  actual  state  of  civilized  life,  they  are  objects 
of  the  first  utility  and  necessity,  as  much  so  as  the 
fire  which  warms  you,  or  dresses  your  food.  Be- 
sides, the  precious  metals  are  not  only  the  instru- 
ment of  commerce,  but  the  inciting  cause,  the  ani- 
mating reward  of  all  the  industry  and  labour  in 
the  world.  Man  will  not  labour  for  mere  conve- 
niences :  it  is  the  hope  of  obtaining  something  be- 
yond this,  of  surplus  wealth,  that  stimulates  him  to 
overcome  the  inertiae  of  his  nature,  and  to  submit 
to  the  irksomeness  of  painful  toil.  The  savage, 
who  knows  not  the  use  of  gold  and  silver,  who  is 
unacquainted  with  either  conveniences  or  luxu- 
ries, takes  his  scanty  repast,  just  enough  to  satisfy 
the  cravings  of  hunger,  then  wraps  his  blanket 
around  him,  and  sleeps  till  hunger  again  returns 
to  arouse  and  impel  him  to  the  chase :  he  is  the 
rich  man  of  the  political  economists :  none  have 


208 

the  necessaries  of  life  in  so  great  abundance  as 
he.  Dr.  Smith  says  that  "  every  man  is  rich  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  in  which  he  can  enjoy  the 
necessaries  of  life."  Then  are  we  all  rich,  for 
which  of  us  does  not  enjoy  the  necessaries  of  life  ? 
— and  the  rich  are  found  in  alms  houses  and  hospi- 
tals as  well  as  in  splendid  palaces. 

The  precious  metals  are  not  an  artificial  pro- 
duction   like    manufactures,    which    presuppose 
agriculture,    but   they   are   the   natural   produc- 
tions  of  the   soil   of  Peru    and   Mexico,   which 
demand  labour  like  any  other  production,  like 
the   wheat,   tobacco,   and   cotton  of  the  United 
States,  with  this  only  difference,  that  they  do  not 
require  seed  or  cultivation  like  the  latter,  but 
grow   spontaneously   in    the   earth.      The   value 
arising  from  that  true  test,  the  demand  of  gold 
and  silver,  induces  the  working  of  the  mines,  but 
as  they  cannot  be  worked  without  the  articles  of 
living  being  supplied  to  the  workmen,  it  follows 
that  the  working  of  mines  encourages  agriculture, 
and  enriches  the  agriculturist,  whcf  sells  his  sur- 
plus produce  to  the  rich  miners  who  want  it;  and 
hence  the  fact,  that  in  Peru,  the  greatest  markets 
are  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines.     The  mines 
in  some  measure  supply  the  want  of  commerce, 
to  this  country,  which  has  always  been  prohibited 
by  the  government.     We   behold   populous  and 
wealthy  cities  rising   up  in  the   interior  of  the 
country,  in  inhospitable  climates,  and  on  a  barren 
soil,  in   the   vicinity   of  gold  and   silver  mines. 


209 

What  would  have  been  the  situation  of  Peru,  no 
matter  how  fine  the  climate,  or  how  productive 
the  soil,  if  it  had  no  mines,  or  they  had  never 
been  worked ! 

It  may  happen  that  the  precious  metals  may  be 
*ent  into  the  world  in  great  abundance,  as  was 
the  case  on  the  discovery  of  America,  and  the 
demand  decreasing,  they  may  decrease  in  value. 
If  this  should  occur,  it  will  operate  in  favour  of 
the  agriculturist  of  Peru,  or  of  that  country  where 
the  increase  begins,  as  by  obtaining  more  metal 
for  his  produce,  he  will  be  able  to  purchase  greater 
quantities  of  conveniences  and  luxuries;  many 
things  which  before  he  could  not  obtain,  will  be 
within  his  reach,  and  the  sphere  of  his  comforts 
and  enjoyments  Will  be  enlarged ;  having  more 
money,  he  will  be  able  to  command  a  greater 
amount  of  the  labour,  or  of  the  products  of  the 
labour,  of  other  nations.  This  is  too  obvious  to 
require  illustration  ;*  and  by  increasing  the  quantity 
of  the  precious  metals  in  Peru,  the  amount  of  its 
national  wealth  will  be  increased. 

It  is  preposterous*  to  pretend  that  it  will  be 
impolitic  for  Peru  to  work  its  mines,  the  rich  pro- 
ducts of  which  are  as  much  its  natural  productions 
as  Peruvian  bark  or  Cochineal,  and  by  which 
foreign  commerce  will  be  most  powerfully  attract- 
ed to  its  shores :  and  it  is  to  an  extended  inter- 
course with  foreign  nations  that  this  country  must 
look  for  advancement  in  knowledge,  industry, 
arts,  and  civil  and  religious  liberty. 

2  D 


210 

In  Europe  it  may  indeed  be  true  that  agriculture 
is  the  only  fountain  of  its  prosperity,  because  it 
furnishes  the  raw  materials  for  manufactures  which 
are  the  sources  of  its  wealth ;  and  I  know  not  but 
the  notions  of  political  economy  which  I  have  been 
combatting  may  be  applicable  to  that  country,  but 
the  situation  and  interests  of  the  new  world  are 
widely  different.  In  South  America,  the  mines 
are  at  present  the  only  encouragement  of  agricul- 
ture and  industry;  in  those  parts  which  are  the 
most  distant  from  the  mines,  although  the  most 
fertile,  the  inhabitants  afe  less  wealthy;  easily 
supplying  themselves  with  the  necessaries  of  life, 
here  their  industry  ceases,  and  they  are  compara- 
tively idle  and  indolent.  But  the  people  who 
dwell  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mines,  become 
rich  from  selling  the  surplus  produce  of  their  soil, 
for  the  gold  and  silver  of  the  miners,  and  they  are 
enabled  to  enjoy,  if  not  more  of  the  mere  neces- 
saries, certainly  more  of  the  comforts  and  luxuries 
of  life.  Thus  it  is  that  the  prosperity  of  agricul- 
ture'in  Peru  keeps  pace  with  the  progressive  aug- 
mentation of  surplus  wealth,  or  of  gold  and  silver. 
And  here  I  cannot  but  remark  the  absurdity  of 
the  idea  of  Dr.  Smith,  that  the  "  mines  of  a  coun- 
try have  no  connexion  with  its  industry." 

The  miners  in  Peru  and  Mexico  are  the  patrons 
and  supporters  of  the  luxurious  arts,  like  the 
Princes  of  Europe.  In  the  city  of  Mexico,  which 
is  full  of  wealthy  miners,  there  are  monuments  of 
the  arts,  equal  in  magnificence  to  those  of  any 
city  in  the  world ;  and  if  Peru  does  not  exhibit 


211 

the  same  grandeur,  it  is  because  that  country  has 
been  more  oppressed  and  ill  governed  than  Mexico; 
and  it  is  a  fact  that  its  governors,  from  the  period 
of  the  conquest  to  the  present  day,  have  been  the 
most  ignorant  of  any  in  Spanish  America*. 

Although  the  miners  dwell  in  the  most  unfavour- 
able climates,  and  on  the  most  barren  soil,  still 
they  rear  habitations  there,  and  build  flourishing 
towns  and  populous  cities ;  and  even  after  the 
mines  are  exhausted  and  abandoned,  the  colony 
remains,  the  hardy  inhabitant  having  become  at- 
tached to  the  soil,  no  matter  how  rude  it  is^  which 
gave  him  birth.  After  prosperity  has  departed, 
and  subsistence  itself  become  precarious,  we  find 
him  clinging  to  the  barren  rock,  and  withering 
there,  rather  than  be  torn  away.  It  is  in  vain  to 
remind  him  how  bleak  the  sky,  how  Karren  the 
soil,  how  tempestuous  the  climate — we  find  him 
rebuilding  his  weather-beaten  cottage  on  the 
broken  rock  which  the  lightning,  had  riven,  or  on 
the  sand  which  the  torrents  had  not  entirely  swept 
away,  obstinately  refusing  to  quit  his  native  soil. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Potosi,  Lipez,  and  Aulla- 
gas,  we  find  a  people  dwelling  on  the  verge  of 
eternal  snows,  surrounded  by  the  tenants  of  those 
inhospitable  regions,  the  Vicunas  and  Guanacos, 
in  small  romantic  cottages  on  the  summits  of  the 
mountains;  subsisting  cheerfully  on  the  milk  of 
their  goats  and  frozen  potatoes,  regardless  of  the 

*  Pizarro  could  neither  read  nor  write,  and  his  successors 
have  been  generally  in  the  same  predicament. 


2lU 

tempest  howling  without,  and  of  their  lofty  and 
exposed  position. 

Who  can  doubt  that  the  fine  and  fertile  valleys 
of  Peru,  "where  the  flowers  ever  blossom,  the 
beams  ever  shine,"  will  be  populated,  whenever 
the  government  shall  secure  to  the  citizen  his 
rights,  and  shall  encourage  the  emigration  of  enter- 
prising foreigners  ? 

CLIMATE. 

In  the  progress  of  the  preceding  letters,  I  have 
spoken  of  the  climate  of  particular  districts  of 
Upper  Peru  $  I  will  now  endeavour  to  present  a 
general  view  of  the  climate  of  the  whole  country. 

From  the  pass  of  Volcan,  in  the  south,  which  is 
near  the  (ropic,  to  the  Cordillera  of  Vilcanota  in 
the  north*,  situated  at  1 4°  30'  south  lat.  the  tract  of 
country  between  the  eastern,  and  western  Cordil- 
lera, is  generally  windy  and  cold,  although  some 
temperate  and  fruitful  valleys  intervene.  This 
mountainous  and  rugged  tract  is  called  La  Sierra  ; 
it  is  rich  in  metallic  wealth,  and  in  addition  to  the 
precious  metals  and  quicksilver,  there  are  mines 
of  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron,  in  great  abundance, 
and  which  are  all  worked  except  those  of  iron  and 
quicksilver.  The  product  of  copper,  tin,  and  lead, 
is  abundant ;  these  metals  are  used  in  the  opera- 
tions of  mining,  and  the  two  former  are  exported 
in  considerable  quantities. 

In  this  region  there  are  frequent  storms  of  rain 
and  hail,  and  on  the  mountains,  snow;  thunder- 
storms are  also  frequent.     The  year  is  divided 


213 

into  only  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry ;  the 
former  commencing  in  November  and  continuing 
to  April,  and  the  latter,  or  dry  season,  the  remain- 
der of  the  year;  during  this  period  there  are  no 
rains,  and  this  is  the  winter  of  this  climate,  there 
being  frequently  frosts  of  considerable  severity* 
and  the  ground  being  frozen  so  as  to  prevent  cul- 
tivation.    In  the  rainy  months,  potatoes,  quinoa, 
oka,  and  other  roots  and  grains,  peculiar  to  the 
country,  are  cultivated,  even  on  the  table  hinds, 
and  the  declivities  of  the  Cordilleras.     The  coldest 
weather  which  occurs  in  May  and  June,  resembles 
the  months  of  October  and  November  in  the  north- 
ern states  of  North  America ;  but  fires  are  never 
lighted  to  warm  apartments, — the  same  kind  of , 
dress  is  worn  the  year  round,  and  cattle  are  never 
housed.     The  lofty  regions  are  bare  of  trees  ;  the 
table  lands  only  exhibit  a  little  stunted  shrubbery, 
and  a  species  of  wiry  grass,  or  rush,  called  Heechoo, 
which  grows  where  nothing  else  will  vegetate,  and 
upon    which   the  Vicunas   and    Guanacos    feed. 
This  rush  is  used  by  the  Indians  for  roofing  their 
cottages,  and  they  make  mats  and  ropes  of  the 
same  substance.     There  is  now  a  bridge  over  the 
river  Desaguedero,  on  the  main  route  from  Lima 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  the  lengthwise,  or  string  pieces 
of  which  consist  of  ropes  of  the  size  of  cables 
made  of  this  grass,  resting   upon  the  water,  upon 
which  canoes    are  placed    crosswise,   and   over 
these  are  strewed  great  quantities  of  flags,  collect- 
ed from  the  shores  of  the  river  and  the  lake.     This 
bridge  is  repaired  every  year;  it  is  said  to  have 


214 

existed  alter  the  same  fashion,  from  th*e  times  of 
the  Incas. 

la  the  valleys  and  ravines  of  this  tract  of  coun- 
try,  the  climate  is  temperate  and  the  soil  fertile  ; 
and,  from  their  sheltered  situation,  vegetation 
is  never  interrupted  by  frost ;  they  are  profusely 
watered  by  the  torrents  which  roll  down  the  moun- 
tains, and  are  well  adapted  to  the  production 
of  luxuriant  crops. 

On  the  eastern  sides  of  the  eastern  Cordillera, 
the  climate  is  uniformly  warm ;  the  seasons  are 
divided  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  former  tract, 
the  rainy  season  commencing  in  November  and 
continuing  to  April.  There  are  here  no  frost  or 
snow,  and  all  the  varieties  of  the  climate  consist 
in  the  graduations  of  heat,  and  in  humidity  and 
dryness.  It  is  this  part  of  Peru  which  possesses 
the  finest  climate ;  the  Province  of  Cochabamba 
is  situated  within  this  region,  and  here  is  Tipuani, 
celebrated  for  its  gold,  and  for  being  seated  at  the 
head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Amazon. . 

On  the  west  of  the  western  Cordillera,  or 
that  of  the  coast,  it  never  rains;  the  moisture 
of  the  earth  is  supplied  from  the  torrents  which 
descend  from  the  mountains,  and  from  the  dews 
of  Heaven.  There  is  in  this  region  some  chilly 
weather;  but  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
inconsiderable ;  there  are  here  no  thunder  storms, 
but  earthquakes  are  not  unfrequent.  .There 
are  some  volcanic  mountains  in  the  range  of  the 
western  Cordillera,  but  their  fires  seem  to  have 
expired;  they  have  emitted  no  flames  for  many 


215 

years.  At  the  base  of  a  mountain  near  the  valley 
of  Locumba,  there  are  hot  springs,  impregnated 
with  sulphur.  This  region  along  the  coast,  pos- 
sesses a  mild  and  genial  temperature ;  its  soil  is 
suited  to  the  cultivation  of  all  the  tropical  fruits, 
and  its  valleys  are  celebrated  for  producing  the 
finest  grapes. 

The  healthfulness  of  the  climate  of  Peru,  is  much 
and  deservedly  extolled ;  in  some  of  the  ports  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  the  fever  and  ague  prevails,  but 
acute  diseases  are  almost  entirely  unknown.  The 
Indians,  who  live  a  temperate  life,  attain  very 
generally  to  an  advanced  age.  Peru  has  been 
called  the  country  of  old  men. 

SOIL  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 

1 '  now  proceed  to  speak  more  minutely  of  the 
mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal,  productions  of  this 
country. 

Mineral  Substances. 

Alum,  (three  kinds,)  epsom  salts,  glauber  salts, 
nitre,  or  salt  petre,  soda,  native  verdigris,  orpi- 
ment  of  Peru,  salt,  blue  vitriol,  vitriolated  tartar, 
magnesia. 

Native  Alum.  There  are  three  kinds  of  na- 
tive alum  found  in  this  country,  and  which  are 
called  cachina  blanca,  or  white  cachina,  millo,  and 
colqnenillo,  or  yellow  cachina.  Here  nature  offers 
this  substance  ready  formed  to  your  hands,  and  in 
the  greatest  purity :  while  in  Europe  it  can  only 
be  obtained  by  tedious  and  expensive  processes- 


216 

The  cachina  blanca,  is  found  abundantly  on  the 
frontiers  of  La  Paz,  embedded  in  masses  of  slate 
or  argillaceous  schistos.  The  millo  is  found  plen- 
tifully in  the  deep  defiles  on  both  sides  of  the 
Cordilleras.  It  appears  upon  the  slate  or  schistos 
rocks  in  the  dry  season,  in  a  state  of  efflorescence, 
forming  a  crust  of  pure  alum,  which  nature  has  per- 
fectly combined,  and  made  ready  for  the  use  of  the 
manufacturer  in  his  most  delicate  operations.  Al- 
though found  amorphous,  it  may  easily  be  crystal- 
lized by  the  most  ordinary  chemical  processes. 

The  third  species,  Colquenillo,  is  found  in  great 
abundance,  in  beds  on  the  borders  of  the  Pro- 
vinces of  Porco  and  Chayanta,  and  combined 
with  sulphate  of  copper.  Its  matrix  is  schistos  ; 
its  colour  as  it  appears  in  nature,  is  diversified 
with  shades  of  white  and  yellow.  This  sort  is 
particularly  prized  by  manufacturers  on  account 
of  its  excess  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Green  Vitriol.  (Sulphate  of  iron).  This  substance 
is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance,  in  the  town  of 
Tarapacha,  in  the  Province  of  Carangas.  It  is 
found  in  its  native  state  in  the  dry  season. 

Epsom  Salts.  (Sulphate  of  magnesia).  These 
salts  are  found  in  great  quantities  in  their  native 
state  in  masses  of  slate,  and  sometimes  united 
with  millo,  particularly  on  the  eastern  sides  and 
summits  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  in  the  ravines 
formed  by  the  rivers  Pilcomayo  and  Cachimayo. 

Glauber  Salts.  (Sulphate  of  soda).  This  sub- 
stance is  found  in  the  dry  season  along  the  road 


217 

from  Cuzco  to  Potosi  and  Jujui.  It  is  found  in 
the  shape  of  a  crust,  efflorescing  from  the  earth, 
and  a  person  may  collect  great  quantities  in  a 
short  time ;  an  Indian  will  collect  150  lbs.  in  a  day, 
with  the  copper  vessel  in  which  he  keeps  his 
Chicha. 

Pure  Nitre.  The  vast  abundance  in  which  this 
valuable  substance  is  found  in  Peru  is  truly  as- 
tonishing. It  occurs  in-  its  native  pure  state  ; 
and  is  fit  for  commerce  without  the  aid  of  any 
chemical  process.  It  abounds  on  the  tops  and 
6ides  of  the  hills;  and  besides,  there  are  many 
plants  which  yield   it  abundantly  by  lixiviation. 

Native  Soda.  This  salt  is  found  in  great  plenty 
and  purity  throughout  the  whole  country;  in  the 
plains  bordering  on  the  lake  Titicaca,  in  Paria 
and  Oruro,  and  in  the  valleys  of  Cochabamba. 
This  is  an  important  article  of  commerce;  in 
Europe  it  is  produced  from  the  combustion  of  sea 
plants,  but  in  Peru  it  is  found  in  its  native  state. 

Native  Verdigris  (Sub-acetate  of  Copper.)  This 
mineral  substance  is  found  in  the  copper  mines  of 
Carangas,  Lipez,  Atacama,  and  other  Provinces. 
The  price  here  is  from  2  to  $3  for  25  lbs ;  while 
the  artificial  verdigris  sells  for  $1  a  pound. 

Orpimcnt  of  Peru  (a  Sulphuret  of  Jlrsemc.)  A 
species  of  yellow  paint,  much  esteemed,  consisting 
of  arsenic  combined  with  sulphur;  it  is  found  in 
the  different  mines  of  the  Cordillera  of  the  coast, 
and  in  the  Province  of  Carangas.     This  is  an  im- 


2  E 


218 

portant  article  in  dyeing,  and  from  it  the  arsenic  of 
commerce  may  be  easily  obtained. 

Common  Salt.  This  country  contains  immense 
deposites  of  this  salt.  The  ravines  in  the  dry 
season  exhibit  immense  quantities  of  it  crystallized 
in  a  high  state  of  purity ;  and  it  is  also  found  in 
large  veins  in  the  rocks,  and  of  the  same  excellent 
quality.  There  are  inexhaustible  mines  of  it  in  the 
settlement  of  Yocalla,  near  Potosi,  from  which 
the  miners  of  that  place  are  supplied ;  and  also 
in  the  Province  of  Yamparaes  and  other  places. 

•All  the  foregoing  substances  are  produced  ready 
formed  to  your  hand,  without  the  aid  of  art ;  indeed 
Peru,  from  its  position  under  a  tropical  sun,  its  long 
rains  and  continued  droughts,  seems  a  vast  labo- 
ratory, where  that  great  chemist,  nature,  carries 
on  her  operations  on  the  grandest^cale,  and  leaves 
little  for  man  to  do. 

Blue  Vitriol  (Sulphate  of  Copper.)  This  substance 
is  found  in  its  native  state,  but  in  very  small  quan- 
tities ;  but  by  combining  sulphur  and  copper, 
which  are  abundant  all  over  Peru,  it  may  easily 
be  produced. 

Vitriolated  Tartar  (Sulphate  of  Potash.)  This 
substance  may  be  obtained  by  a  very  coarse  che- 
mical process  in  this  country. 

Magnesia. — Is  easily  obtained  by  decomposing 
Epsom  salts,  which  yield  about  40  per  cent,  of 
white  magnesia. 


219 


Vegetable  Substances. 

I.  Medicinal.  Gum  Arabic,  camphor,  hamahama, 
tanitani,  arnica  of  the  Andes,  guachanca,  quin- 
quina, jalap,  rhubarb,  sarsaparilla ;  gums  copal, 
storax,  tragacanth,  myrrh,  guaicum  and  benzoin, 
frankincense,  balsams  of  copaiva,  Peru,  and  tolu, 
gentian,  aloes,  cullen,  (proralen  grandulosa,) 
calaguala',  {prolipodium  canceolatum)  chancha- 
lagua,  (a  species  of  gentian,)  vira-vira  (graphalum 
vira-vira,)  chamico,  azarguero,  ipecachuana,  cin- 
namon, and  'a  variety  of  bitumens  and  resins. 

Gum  Arabic.  This  substance  is  produced  from 
the  most  common  trees  of  the  country,  but  nobody 
takes  the  trouble  to  collect  it.  The  trees  which 
yield  it  are  of  the  same  species  with  those  from 
which  it  is  obtained  in  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

Camphor.  I  know  not  that  the  real  hums  cam- 
phora  grows  in  the  forests  of  Peru,  but  there  are 
many  trees  of  this  country  which  are  impregnated 
with  this  substance,  and  from  which  it  may  be 
abundantly  obtained  by  sublimation.  These  trees 
occur  in  the  ravines  of  the  eastern  Cor3illera ;  and 
at  Arque  in  Cochabamba  the  odour  of  camphor 
may  be  perceived  at  a  great  distance. 

Hamahama.  A  species  of  valerian,  which  is 
found  abundantly  in  the  Cordilleras ;  there  is  also 
another  species,  Valeriana  catacata,  which  is  found 
on  the  summits  of  those  mountains. 

Quinquina,  {Cinchona,  Peruvian  bark.}  There 
are  several  kinds  of  this  bark  produced  in  Peru, 


22* 

but  the  principal  are  the  pale,  the  yellow,  and  the 
red.  This  important  article  in  the  Materia  Medica, 
is  found  only  in  Peru.  The  trees  from  which  it  is 
taken,  are  found  in  the  eastern  borders  of  La  Paz, 
and  in  all  the  Provinces  of  the  eastern  Cordillera ; 
they  are  slender  and  straight,  rarely  exceeding 
ten  feet  in  height,  and  are  about  the  size  of  a 
man's  leg.  They  never  occur  in  clusters,  but  are 
thinly  scattered  throughout  the  forests ;  they  are 
cut  down  by  the  Indians,  and  the  bark  is  peeled  off 
The  bark  is  collected  principally  by  the  Indians. 

Cinnamon.  This  valuable  substance  is  abun- 
dant in  the  regions  east  of  the  Cordilleras,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Tipuani,  on  the  borders  of  the 
sources  of  the  Amazon,  and  in  the  Provinces  of 
Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  Moxos,  and  Chiquitos. 
In  its  uncultivated  state,  the  only  way  in  which 
it  occurs  here,  it  is  equal  to  the  oriental  cinnamon, 
except  that  it  may  be  somewhat  thicker.  It  is  not 
made  an  article  of  commerce  in  Peru. 

II.  Economical.  Tar,  yellow  wood  of  Santa 
Cruz,  churisiqui,  molle  and  tola,  chapi,  rocou,  or 
Brazil  wood,  airampo,  indigo,  cocoa,  coca,  tobac- 
co, coffee,  cotton,  potatoe,  banana,  oka,  quinoa,  agi, 
agave,  vainilla,  alspice,  wax,  chonta,  mahogany, 
lucma,  ginger,  olives,  grapes,  palms,  tamarinds. 

Many  of  these  substances  are  dye  stuffs,  such 
as  the  yellow  wood  of  Santa  Cruz,  chapi,  and  airampo, 
the  former  for  dyeing  yellow,  and  the  two  latter, 
red. 

Lucma  and  chonta  are  fine  woods  used  in  cabinet 
work.     The  lucma  yields  a  delicious  fruit,  and  the 


221 

ehonta  is  equal  in  Colour,  in  fineness  of  texture,  and 
solidity,  to  ebony.  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  enu- 
merate the  many  fine  woods  which  abound  in  the 
extensive  forests  of  this  country,  for  they  have 
never  been  explored  by  civilized  man.  The  lower 
declivities  of  the  Cordilleras  are  heavily  timbered, 
but  it  is  in  the  forests  extending  from  Cochabamba 
and  Tipuani,  east  and  north,  that  the  trees  of  the 
largest  size  are  found,  and  some  of  which,  I  should 
imagine,  are  well  adapted  to  ship-building.  The 
pine  and  cedar  are  common  trees  of  the  country. 
Odoriferous  and  flowering  shrubs  are  abundant. 
These  forests  are  a  mine  of  botanical  riches,  but 
such  is  the  non-chalance  of  the  Spaniards,  that 
they  have  never  been  explored,  except  by  the 
Indians,  in  pursuit  of  coca,  or  game. 

Airampo. — Is  a  species  of  the  cactus  upon  which 
the  cochineal  feeds.  It  is  a  prickly  shrub  produc- 
ing red  berries. 

Indigo.  This  valuable  substance  is  found  in 
great  abundance  in  La  Paz,  in  Cochabamba,  and 
Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  but  it  has  never  been 
cultivated. 

Cocoa.  This  is  found  in  Moxos,  in  Apolobamba, 
at  the  foot  of  the  last  chain  of  mountains  in  de- 
scending the  eastern  Cordillera. 

Coca.  This  substance  is  the  tobacco  of  the 
Indians,  and  resembles  th'e  betel  of  the  East;  its 
botanical  name  is  ei-ythroxiglum  Peruvianum. 

Tobacco.  Is  cultivated  in  several  parts  of  the 
country,  but  under  royal  authority.  Its  general 
cultivation  was  interdicted  by  the  Spanish  laws. 


222 

Cotton.  The  Provinces  on  the  east  of  the  east- 
ern Cordillera,  are  the  most  favourable  countries 
in  the  world  for  the  production  of  this  valuable 
substance ;  particularly  Cochabaraba,  in  the  val- 
leys extending  from  Arque  to  Valle  Grande. 

Potatoe  (papa  in  the  Quechua  language,  and 
choke  in  the  Aymara^)  This  important  vegetable 
is  a  native  of  America,  and  is  believed  to  be  an  in- 
digenous production  of  Peru.  There  are  produced 
in  this  country  several  kinds  of  potatoe ;  one  a 
long  kind,  of  which  chunu  is  made.  This  substance 
is  made  by  first  freezing  the  potatoes,  then  pound- 
ing them,  and  drying  them  in  the  sun.  It  is  es- 
teemed a  delicate  food,  and  can  be  preserved 
many  years.  There  is  another  potatoe  which  is 
yellow,  like  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  and  of  fine  flavour. 
There  is  another  kind,  which  is  pi  a  pink  colour, 
and  is  also  excellent  food. 

Banana.  To  this  fruit  some  politicians  have 
attributed  the  indolence  of  the  Spanish  colonists, 
and  have  even  suggested  that  its  cultivation  ought 
to  be  prohibited.  It  is  easily  cultivated ;  its  yield, 
on  a  given  quantity  of  ground,  is  estimated  to  be 
to  that  of  potatoes  as  44  to  1  ;  and  besides  it  is 
extremely  nutritious.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  east- 
ern Cordillera. 

Oka  (oxalis  tuber osa.)  A  sweet  root,  growing 
in  the  cold  and  barren  soils,  and  an  important 
article  of  human  food  in  Peru. 

Quinoa  (Peruvian  rice.)  An  important  grain 
as  an  article  of  food,  and  of  it  and  indian  corn 
is  made  chicha,  the  beer  of  the  Indians. 


223 

Agi  (Guinea  pepper.)  Called  by  the  Indians 
oochoo,  and  by  botanists  capsicum  baccatum ;  its 
pods  are  one  quarter  of  a  yard  in  length;  it  is 
produced  abundantly  on  the  coast. 

Agave.  This  substance,  so  valuable  in  Mexico, 
is  not  at  all  cultivated  in  Peru.  In  Mexico,  a  fer- 
mented and  much  esteemed  liquor  resembling 
cider,  is  made  of  its  juice.  Its  cultivation  is 
very  profitable.  It  is  found  in  the  cold  and 
lofty  regions  of  the  Cordilleras. 

Animal  Substances. 

Sal  ammoniac,  wool,  cochineal,  furs,  plumage. 

Sal  ammoniac.  This  substance  is  ranked  among 
animal  substances  on  account  of  its  being  most 
commonly  procured  from  animal  matter.  The 
Indians  dwelling  on  the  summits  of  the  Andes,  ad- 
mit their  domestic  animals,  the  Llama  and  Alpacha, 
into  their  cabins,  where  they  are  fed  and  housed ; 
and  from  the  scarcity  of  fuel  in  those  sterile  re- 
gions, they  burn  the  excrement  of  these  ani- 
mals. From  the  ashes  of  this  substance  thou- 
sands of  quintals  of  sal  ammoniac  may  easily  be 
made,  as  these  animals  feed  upon  a  grass  strongly 
impregnated  with  salt,  and  which  also  constitutes 
a  part  of  the  fuel  of  the  Indians. 

Wool.  Sheep  are  dispersed  in  great  numbers 
all  over  the  Cordilleras  ;  and  they  contribute  by 
their  fleeces,  milk,  and  flesh,  to  the  comforts  of 
the  Indians  who  inhabit  those  inhospitable  re- 
gions. 

There  are  four  distinct  species  of  sheep  peculiar 


224 

to  this  country ;  the  Llama,  the  Alpacha,  or  Paco,  the 
Guanacof  and  the  Vicuna.  Buffon  has  inaccurately 
described  the  Guanaco  as  being  the  wild  Llama, 
and  the  Vicuna  as  the  wild  Alpacha;  he  is  equally 
incorrect  when  he  says  that  the  Alpacha  is  a  beast 
of  burden  of  the  Indians.  I  was  born  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Alpacha,  and  know  the  contrary  to  be 
the  fact;  the  Alpacha  is  a  slender  and  feeble 
animal. 

The  Llama  and  Alpacha  are  domestic  animals. 
The  Llama  is  about  the  size  of  a  stag ;  of  different 
colours,  white,  brown,  and  black.  This  animal 
is  sometimes  called  the  American  Camel,  but  the 
points  of  resemblance  are  not  very  numerous  or 
striking.  The  Llama  chews  the  cud  like  the 
common  sheep;  its  flesh  is  excellent  food:  I  have 
often  tasted  it,  and  esteem  it  equal  to  mutton. 
Its  wool  is  long  and  coarse,  and  of  that  of  the 
wild  Llama  .the  Indians  make  their  clothing.  It  is 
the  common  beast  of  burden  of  the  Indians ;  its 
usual  load  is  five  arobas,  (125  lbs.);  it  is  slow  mo- 
tioned, having  a  lofty  and  majestic  gait,  accompa- 
nied with  a  droning  noise  as  it  marches  along,  and' 
carrying  its  head  high  in  the  air :  in  temper,  it  is 
mild,docile,  and  would  no  doubt  be  patient  under 
injuries,  if  they  were  ever  inflicted ;  but  the  In- 
dians never  treat  this  noble  animal  with  cruelty. 
It  was  the  beast  of  burden  of  the  Peruvians,  in 
the  times  of  the  Incas. 

Alpacha.   This  animal  is  smaller  than  the  Llama. 
Its  colour  is  white,  black,  and  sometimes  spotted. 


225 

Its  flesh,  I  believe  is  never  eaten  ;  its  wool  is  very 
fine  and  valuable. 

Guanaco.  This  animal  is  still  smaller  than  the 
Alpacha ;  its  colour  is  usually  a  pale  red,  resem- 
bling a  rose  dried  in  the  sun ;  its  belly  and  legs 
are  white ;  its  wool  is  fine  and  valuable.  This 
animal  is  wild ;  I  never  saw  one  domesticated ; 
it  frequents  the  most  rude  and  inaccessible  parts 
of  the  Cordilleras,  and  is  extremely  fleet  of  foot. 

The  Vicuna  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  Guanaco ; 
it  is  somewhat  taller  than  the  common  English 
sheep,  but  with  a  smaller  body.  Its  colour  is 
ordinarily  brown,  with  white  belly  and  legs.  This 
animal  is  more  vigorous  in  the  elevated  regions  of 
the  Cordilleras  than  in  low  and  temperate  situa- 
tions ;  and  the  difference  in  the  wool  in  the  two 
situations  is  very  perceptible :  that  in  the  higher 
parts  being  much  the  finest. 

The  Vicunas  inhabit  the  rudest  and  wildest 
parts  of  the  Cordilleras,  where  the  severity  of 
the  climate  and  the  continual  snows  drive  off 
every  other  animal,  except  the  Guanaco.  THey 
are  found  in  abundance  throughout  the  whole- 
range  of  the  Cordilleras,  from  the  borders  of 
Chili  far  to  the  north.  In  passing  along  the  east- 
ern Cordillera,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Choque- 
Camata,  in  Cochabamba,  and  towards  the  borders 
of  Chili,  you  frequently  see  droves  of  many  hun- 
dreds of  these  animals  like  flocks  of  sheep.  They 
are  extremely  fleet-footed  and  are  caught  with 
difficulty  in  the  chase,  but  their  wonderful  timidity 

2  F 


226 

furnishes  an  easy  mode  of  taking  them.     The  In- 
dian hunters,  by  a  mode  with  which  they  are  ac- 
quainted,  collect  them  together  in  a  place  sur- 
rounded with  pickets  fixed  in  the  ground,  upon  the 
tops  of  which  bits  of  cloth  are  fastened,  which  being 
shaken  by  the  wind,  so  terrify  the  timid  Vicunas 
that  they  make  no  effort  to  escape,  and  are  easily 
caught.   They  are  never  sheared,  and  every  fleece 
costs  the  life  of  one  of  these  valuable  animals. 
They  are  sometimes  hunted  with  dogs  and  guns 
like  deer.    They  are  easily  domesticated,  and  be- 
come as  tame  and  as  familiar  with  man  as  a  dog. 
They  are  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  Indian 
cabin,  and  sometimes  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  in 
the  interior  cities. 

The  wool  of  the  Alpacha  is  of  an  excellent 
quality,  but  that  of  the  Vicuna  is  perhaps  the 
finest  in  the  world.  It  is  thick  and  bushy,  ex- 
tremely fine,  soft  and  silky  to  the  touch ;  and 
possesses  an  extraordinary  gloss  and  lustre ;  it  is 
more  like  silk  than  ordinary  wool,  and  it  does  not 
lose  its  glossiness  by  being  dyed.  In  this  animal 
is  found  the  bezoar  stone,  which  is  considered  equal 
to  the  oriental. 

Cochineal,  (called  Maekno  by  the  Indians.)  This 
insect,  which  occurs  in  its  native  state  in  abun- 
dance in  Peru,  is  not  cultivated  there,  but  its  im- 
portance, if  it  were  cultivated,  may  be  estimated 
from  the  fact  that  its  annual  exportation  from 
Mexico,  in  years  of  peace,  amounts  to  nearly  two 
and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.     Its  price  at  Vera 


227 

Cruz  is  about  $3  a  pound,-  in  New- York,  at  the 
present  time,  it  is  from  6  to  $8. 

This  valuable  product  is  suffered  to  grow,  and 
to  perish,  without  exciting  the  attention  of  the 
incurious  Spaniard. 

Fur.  The  fur  of  the  Chinchilla  is  not  inferior  to 
that  of  the  martin.  It  is  already  exported  to 
Europe  in  considerable  quantities.  The  Chinchilla 
is  a  little  animal,  about  the  size  of  a  cat ;  it  is 
found  in  Lipez,  and  generally  on  the  Cordilleras ; 
its  flesh  is  often  eaten,  and  esteemed  a  delicacy. 

The  furs  also  of  the  Zorillo,  and  the  Bullin,  an 
amphibious  animal,  are  very  valuable.  The  skins 
of  the  American  Tiger  are  collected  in  consider- 
able quantities  by  the  Indians. 

Plumage.  Ostrich  feathers  are  collected  by  the. 
Indians.  The  ostrich  is  found  on  the  bleak  and 
barren  regions  of  the  Cordilleras  in  considerable 
abundance. 

But  the  most  remarkable  bird  of  South  America 
is  the  Condor,  which  is  between  three  and  four 
feet  in  height,  and  whose  wings  are  at  least  fourteen 
feet  from  end  to  end.  These  mammoth  birds  are 
domesticated ;  their  colour  is  a  dark  brown,  with 
a  white  collar  around  their  necks.  At  the  bull 
feasts  they  are  often  turned  into  the  arena  to  fight 
with  the  bulls ;  they  are  of  remarkable  strength, 
and  will  run  and  fly  with  amazing  swiftness. 

There  are  between  40  and  50  species  of  parrots 
in  this  country,  some  of  which  are  very  large  and 
beautiful. 


228 

In  the  preceding  remarks  upon  the  productions 
of  Upper  Peru,  it  has  not  been  my  object  to  write 
the  natural  history  of  that  country,  but  to  notice 
such  of  its  products  as  may  hereafter  become  im- 
portant articles  of  foreign  commerce.  I  will  now 
point  out  others,  which  more  particularly  concern 
the  domestic  economy  of  the  country. 

Wheat.  This  valuable  grain  is  produced  in 
great  abundance  in  Cochabamba,  in  the  Province 
of  Larecaja  in  La  Paz,  and  in  the  Intendencies  of 
Arequipa  and  Cuzco.  At  Cuzco  it  is  so  abundant 
that  the  price  of  8  loaves  of  bread  weighing  18oz. 
each,  and  of  the  first  quality,  is  sixpence ;  and  that 
of  the  second  quality  is  a  halfpenny  a  loaf,  of  the 
same  weight. 

The  Intendency  of  Cuzco  is  extremely  fertile, 
and  furnishes  the  cold  districts  of  Peru  with  great 
quantities  of  wheat  and  maize.  Judge  Bland,  late 
United  States'  commissioner  to  South  America, 
in  his  excellent  report  on  Chili,  has  certainly  been 
misinformed  when  he  says,  "  none  of  the  tropical 
regions  of  America,  either  on  the  Atlantic  or  Pa- 
cific ocean,  produce  wheat,  or  indeed  any  bread 
stuff,  in  sufficient  abundance  for  the  inhabitants" — 
and  again,  "  from  Acapulco  to  Cobija,  (the  coun- 
try) is  entirely  dependant  upon  Chili  for  bread." 
The  present  high  price  of  wheat  at  Lima  ($25 
a  bushel,)  and  along  the  Pacific  coast,  is  owing 
to  several  accidental  causes  : — to  the  revolution, 
which  has  so  busily  engaged  the  Cochabambians 
and  the  people  of  Cuzco  that  they  have  had  no 
leisure  to  attend  to  the  cultivation  of  their  fields ; 


229 

*—  and  to  the  great  expense  of  transportation,  in 
consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  mules.  The  supply 
of  these  animals,  from  Tucuman,  has  been  entirely 
suspended  during  the  present  war.  I  am  confident 
that  Cuzco  and  Cochabamba  can  alone  supply  all 
Peru  with  wheat. 

The  mean  produce  of  wheat  in  Peru,  compared 
to  that  of  other  countries,  is  truly  astonishiric;  It 
is  computed  by  Humboldt  that  the  produce  of 
wheat  in  the  plains  of  Caxamarca  in  Low  Peru,  is 
from  18  to  20  for  1,  while  that  of  France  is  from 
5  to  6  for  1,  and  that  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
and  Louisiana,  is  4  for  1.  From  these  data,  we 
may  estimate  the  average  produce  of  wheat  in 
Caxamarca,  to  be  from  60  to  70  bushels  an  acre. 

Maize  (Indian  corn.)  A  native  production  of 
America,  like  the  potatoe.  It  is  produced  in 
amazing  abundance  in  Cuzco,  and  yields  from  1 
to  200  fold.  Several  varieties  are  cultivated,  one 
whose  kernel  is  an  inch  long.  The  stalks  usually 
attain  the  height  of  from  8  to  10  feet,  and  they 
contain  almost  as  much  sugar  as  the  sugar-cane ; 
a  syrup,  resembling  molasses,  is  frequently  ex- 
tracted from  them. 

Rice. — Is  produced  in  considerable  abundance 
in  the  eastern  Provinces. 

Sugar.  The  sugar  cane  is  cultivated  in  Cuzco. 
Arequipa,  Larecaja,  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 
The  sugar  of  Cuzco  is  esteemed  the  best,  although 
ihe  climate  of  Arequipa,  on  account  of  the  ab- 
sence of  rain,  seems  most  favourable  to  its  suc- 
cessful culture. 


1230 

Horned  cattle — Are  scarce  and  dear  in  Peru, 
compared  to  Tucuman  and  some  other  provinces 
of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  are  of  small  size.  The 
farmers  use  oxen  altogether  in  cultivating  their 
fields.  In  the  warm  and  temperate  regions,  cows 
supply  the  inhabitants  with  milk,  while  in  the  cold, 
sheep's  milk  is  wholly  used,  and  of  which  butter 
and  cheese  are  made.  I  have  already  borne  tes- 
timony to  the  excellence  of  the  cheese  of  Paria, 
which  is  made  of  the  milk  of  sheep.  These  ani- 
mals (common  sheep)  are  in  great  numbers  in  this 
country  ;  the  fields  are  almost  covered  with  them. 
Their  wool  is  an  important  article  of  internal  com- 
merce. 

Fruit.  It  is  unnecessary,  and  indeed,  it  would 
be  impossible  for  me  to  enumerate  all  the  varie- 
ties of  fruits  to  be  found  in  this  country;  they  are 
produced,  both  native  and  exotic,  in  the  greatest 
profusion  and  perfection.  The  gardens  of  the 
convents  in  Cuzco  can  only  be  compared  to  the 
fairy  scenes  of  Eastern  romance,  or  the  visions  of 
poetic  fancy.  Among  the  exotics  we  may  reckon 
almost  all  the  fruits  of  Europe ;  of  grapes  they  had 
a  great  variety  of  their  own,  or  which  were  intro- 
duced by  the  Spaniards  after  the  conquest ;  and 
in  addition  to  these,  M.  Bonpland,  the  celebrated 
companion  of  Humboldt,  brought  to  Buenos  Ayres 
a  few  years  since,  thirteen  varieties  of  grapes  from 
the  vineyards  of  France,  together  with  some  fruit 
trees  and  valuable  plants,  many  of  which  have,  no 
doubt,  already  found  their  way  to  the  gardens  of 


231 

Cuzco  and  Cochabamba.  Of  olives,  great  quantities 
are  cultivated  in  Arequipa ;  they  are  of  unusual 
size,  and  the  oil  which  is  made  from  them  is  ex- 
cellent, and  very  cheap  throughout  all  Peru. 

COMMERCE. 

The  commerce  of  Peru  has  heretofore  been 
wholly  confined  to  Spain.  The  Spanish  merchant 
introduced  his  goods  through  two  channels,  Lima 
and  Buenos  Ay  res,  which  were  caAledpuertos  may  ores 
incontradistinction  to  thepucrtosmenores,  such  as  Ari- 
ca,  Ilo,  &c.  which  could  not  trade  directly  with  the 
mother  country.  The  Philippine  Islands  also  car- 
ried on  a  trade  with  Lima,  and  had  a  factory,  or 
mercantile  company  there,  called  Gremios,  with 
branches  in  the  interior  towns.  The  commodities 
of  the  East  introduced  in  this  way  into  Peru,  have 
been  estimated  to  amount  annually  to  $  270,230, 
which  were  exchanged  for  gold  and  silver  to  the 
amount  of  $  2,780,000.  The  European  goods  im- 
ported, are  exchanged  for  gold  and  silver,  and  be- 
sides, for  copper,  Peruvian  bark,  Alpacha  and  Vi- 
cuna wool,  chinchilla  skins,  and  some  other  trifling 
articles. 

The  consumers  of  foreign  commodities  in  Peru, 
have  been  only  Spaniards  and  Creoles,  including 
a  few  mestizos  and  mulattos,  which  altogether  may 
be  one  fourth  of  the  whole  population.  The  cho- 
los,  negroes,  and  indians,  almost  entirely  use  arti- 
cles of  domestic  manufacture.  In  the  intendency 
of  Cuzco,  there  arc  large  manufactories  of  baize, 


2M 

the  lulling  and  dressing  of  cloths  being  prohibited 
by  the  King.  Notwithstanding  which  prohibition, 
during  the  late  continental  war  in  Europe,  fine 
woollen  fabricks  were  made  at  these  manufacto- 
ries. Blankets  of  a  fine  quality  are  manufactured, 
and  in  the  intendency  of  Puno,  indian  cloths  and 
carpets  are  made,  which  supply  the  coast.  The 
wool  for  these  manufactories,  is  supplied  from  that 
region  of  country  called  La  Sierra,  situated  between 
the  Cordilleras.  The  principal  cotton  manufac- 
tories are  in  Cochabamba  and  some  parts  of  La 
Paz. 

The  interior  commerce  between  Upper  and 
Low  Peru,  has  been  calculated  at  %  6,693,533,  an- 
nually. The  amount  of  foreign  goods  introduced 
through  Buenos  Ayres  into  Peru  is  estimated,  by 
the  Secretary  Moreno,  to  have  been,  before  the 
revolution,  %  1 8,000,000,  annually ;  and  the  amount 
introduced  into  all  America,  according  to  M.  Tor- 
res, is  %  100,000,000.  But  the  foreign  commerce 
heretofore  carried  on  with  South  America,  affords 
no  certain  data  from  which  we  may  calculate  what, 
will  be  the  future  commerce  of  that  country.  The 
merchants  of  Cadiz,  who  monopolized  the  colo- 
nial trade  of  Spain,  did  not  proceed  upon  any  re- 
gular commercial  system,  except  that  of  buying 
cheap  of  the  colonies,  and  selling  dear  to  them, 
and  they  were  only  the  agents  of  foreign  mer- 
chants ;  the  same  routine  was  followed  year  after 
year  for  nearly  three  centuries ;  no  new  branches 
of  trade  were  opened,  but  an  universal  languor 


233 

pervaded  all  their  operations.  Besides,  the  col- 
onies were  subjected  to  the  united  influence 
of  the  worst  of  governments,  and  of  a  reli- 
gion which  has  been  a  blast  upon  every  country 
where  it  has  predominated.  Until  within  a  few 
years,  the  colonies  were  not  permitted  to  trade 
with  each  other;  they  were  placed  in  the  position 
of  belligerents,  and  their  ports  in  that  of  besieged 
or  blockaded  towns ;  and  even  the  mother  country 
herself  could  not  carrv  on  a  free  trade  with  them. 
At  first,  Seville  monopolized  the  whole  commerce 
of  South  America,  and  it  was  afterwards  slowly 
and  gradually  extended  to  Cadiz  and  the  other 
porls,  but  it  was  for  ever  subjected  to  odious  re- 
strictions. To  enforce  them,  the  penal  code  of 
Spain  was  exhausted ;  and  to  the  pains  of  death 
and  confiscation  of  property,  were  added  the  fear- 
ful anathemas  of  the  Church.  It  was  not  until  the 
year  1778,  in  the  administration  of  Galvez,  that  the 
free  commerce-  of  South  America  was  granted  to 
the  merchants  of  Spain,  but  its  manufactures  were 
still  shackled  by  the  laws*. 

From  the  few  lights  which  are  shed  upon  the 
commerce  of  Peru,  it  is  impossible  to  judge  of  the 
present  extent  of  the  market,  the  quantity  of  goods 
demanded,  or  the  number  of  consumers.     A  feeble 

*  In  a  royal  order  of  the  6th  December,  1784,  a  ter  a  recital  that  the  wool 
of  the  Vicuna  had  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats  at  Lima,  which  was 
contrary  to  law,  and  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  manufactures  of  the  mo- 
ther country,  it  was  ordered  that  all  the  Vicuna  wool  should  be  bought  up 
on  account  of  government,  and  sent  to  Spain.  This  order  is  referred  to  by 
Dean  Funes  in  his  History  of  Buenos  Ayres,  to  show  that  Humboldt  is  mis- 
taken in  the  assertion  that  the  king  of  Spain  never  issued  any  order  to  pro- 
hibit or  di?coura£«  manufactures  in  the  colonic*. 

2  G 


231 

light  is  indeed  derived  from  the  example  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  and  the  wealth  and  population  of  Peru. 
The  country  of  Low  Peru,  which  extends  from 
Tumbez,  in  lat.  3°  30'  S.  to  the  Cordillera  of  Vil- 
canota,  in  lat.  1 4°  30'  S.  embraces  a  large  extent  of 
territory,  including  eight  intendencies,  eight  po- 
pulous cities,  and  1460  small  towns  or  villages. 
The  capital,  Lima,  contained,  according  to  an  ac- 
curate census  taken  in  1798,  52,627  inhabitants, 
without  including  tributary  indians,  or  the  neigh- 
bouring villages*.  The  city  of  Cuzco,  the  ancient 
metropolis  of  the  Incas,  situated  in  the  interior,  is 
nearly  equal  to  Lima  in  population,  and  but  little 
inferior  to  it  in  wealth.  The  whole  population  of 
Peru  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from 
1 ,700,000  to  3,000,000.  The  inhabitants  along  the 
coast  consist  chiefly  of  whites  and  mulattoes,  who 
generally  speak  the  Spanish  language,  and  are 
possessed  of  property,  while  those  of  La  Sierra  are 
mostly  tributary  indians.  Wealth  is  here  more  e- 
qually  divided  than  in  Mexico ;  the  mines  are  rich- 
er, and  are  at  present,  I  imagine,  better  worked. 
Steam  engines  have  been  recently  introduced  atLi- 
ma,  and  chymistry  and  mineralogy  are  beginning 
to  be  well  understood.  When  this  country  shall 
have  gained  its  freedom,  the  indians,  mestizos,  and 
cholos,  who  altogether  are  very  numerous,  will  be 


*  In  the  year  1682,  when  the  Duke  de  la  Palata,  the  Viceroy,  made  his  en- 
try into  Lima,  three  whole  streets  were  paved  with  ingots  of  solid  silver, 
each  weighing  200  marks,  and  being  from  12  to  15  inches  in  length  ; 
the  whole  being  estimated  at  54,000,000  dollars.  In  1700,  there  were  400 
carriages  in  this  city. 


235 

added  to  the  consumers  of  foreign  commodities, 
and  will  of  course  greatly  increase  the  demand. 

Although  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  the 
precise  amount  of  foreign  goods  imported  into  Bue- 
nos Ayres  since  the  revolution,  yet  I  am  confident 
it  has  been  very  great ;  and  the  beneficial  influ- 
ence of  commerce  upon  civilization  and  industry, 
has  been  amply  demonstrated  in  its  happy  effects 
upon  the  people  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  the  interior 
provinces.  Anterior  to  the  ordinance  of  the  King 
opening  the  ports  of  the  La  Plata,  the  interior  pro- 
vinces were  in  extreme  want;  wheat  perished  in 
the  fields  ;  the  flesh  of  bullocks  was  left  to  putrify 
on  the  earth,  or  to  be  devoured  by  wild  dogs  and 
vultures;  the  people,  wrapped  in  their  ponchos, 
with  their  butcher-knives  and  catch-ropes,  the 
only  implements  of  their  industry,  presented  the 
most  miserable  picture  of  wretchedness  and  sloth; 
abounding  in  commodities  of  the  first  necessity  to 
the  subsistence  of  man,  having  a  plentiful  surplus, 
sufficient  to  have  purchased  for  them  every  convex 
nience  and  luxury  of  life,  yet  being  far  distant  from 
a  place  of  demand,  and  their  ports  shut  up, 
those  otherwise  valuable  articles  were  of  no 
use  to  them,  and  perished  on  their  hands.  But 
when  the  revolution  broke  out,  the  English, 
with  their  characteristic  enterprise,  poured  their 
goods  into  Buenos  Ayres,  and  they  were  sold 
at  low  prices,  and  were  thus  thrown  within  the 
reach  of  all  classes;  the  farmers  of  the  interior 
exchanged  their  hides,  beef  and  wheat,  which  they 
did  not  want,  for  the  conveniences  and  luxuries  of 
Europe  ;  they  procured  commodities  which  before 


236 

they  had  never  imagined;  and  along  with  their 
merchandise,  the  English  introduced  their  cus- 
toms, their  improvements  in  the  arts,  and  in  the 
comforts  of  life. 

From  the  re-conquest  of  Chili,  in  October  1817, 
to  July  1818,  there  arrived  in  the  ports  of  that 
country,  twenty-four  American  vessels,  whose  car- 
goes were  estimated  at  $1,387,000;  twenty  English 
vessels,  whose  cargoes  amounted  to  $1,835,000; 
two  Russian,  one  Swedish,  and  one  French ;  the 
whole,  according  to  the  Report  of  Judge  Bland, 
amounting  to  $4,000,000.  In  this  short  period,  a 
greater  number  of  foreign  vessels  arrived  in  Chili, 
than  in  fifty  years  before ;  and  the  people  of  this 
country,  like  their  brethren  of  Buenos  Ayres,  must 
have  experienced  many  important  benefits  from 
this  foreign  commerce. 

The  preceding  facts  load  to  several  important 
and  interesting  considerations. 

1st.  The  countries  of  Upper  and  Lower  Peru, 
alike  in  population,  habits,  interests,  and  produc- 
tions, and  bordering  upon  each  other,  will  hereaf- 
ter probably  carry  on  their  foreign  commerce,  ei- 
ther by  Cape  Horn,  or  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  On 
their  long  and  safe  coast,  foreign  ships  will  find 
commodious  harbours,  where  the  merchants  of 
every  clime  can  carry  their  merchandise,  and  ex- 
change it  for  those  valuable  productions  which  I 
have  noticed  in  the  preceding  letters.  But  there 
are  other  channels  of  commercial  communication 
which  may  be  opened  with  this  country,  which,  in 
the  language  of  Humboldt,  is  destined  to'  change 
the  commercial  face  of  nations.     1  have  already 


237 

spoken  of  the  navigation  of  the  Amazon.  This 
magnificent  river  rises  in  Peru,  and  after  running  a 
northwardly  and  eastwardly  direction  a  distance 
of  between  three  and  four  thousand  miles,  empties 
into  the  Atlantic  ocean,  just  below  the  West  Indies. 
The  whole  of  this  distance,  from  the  foot  of  the  An- 
des to  the  ocean,  this  river  is  navigable,  and  the 
navigation  may  be  performed  in  thirty  days ;  and, 
although  its  current  in  the  rainy  season  may  pre- 
vent the  easy  ascent  of  vessels,  it  will  afford,  like 
the  Mississippi,  a  noble  channel  for  steam-boat 
navigation. 

And  here  I  cannot  pass  over  the  splendid  and 
much  talked  of  project,  of  cutting  a  canal  across 
the  isthmus  of  Darien,  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans.  The  continent,  at  the  narrowest 
point,  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  is  forty-five 
leagues  wide.  There  are  here  two  rivers,  the  Rio 
Huasacualco  and  the  Chimalapa,  the  former  emp- 
tying into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  latter  into 
the  Pacific  ocean.  Humboldt  states  that  the  Rio 
Huasacualco  forms  in  reality,  a  commercial  com- 
munication between  the  two  oceans ;  and  that,  dur- 
ing the  late  war  with  the  English,  the  indigo  of 
Gautimala  came  by  the  way  of  this  isthmus  to  Vera 
Cruz,  and  thence  to  Europe. 

The  Lake  Nicaragua  has  been  considered  as 
affording  the  most  convenient  point  of  canal  com- 
munication This  river  communicates  on  the  east, 
by  the  river  San  Juan,  with  the  sea  of  Antilles. 
Here  a  canal  would  be  cut  across  the  isthmus 
which  separates  the  Lake  Nicaragua  from  the  gulf 


238 

of  Papagayo,  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  asserted 
by  Humboldt,  that  the  ground  here  appears  very 
little  elevated;  and  Dampier  says  expressly  that 
it  is  a  little  hilly,  but  generally  low  and  level. 

There  is  another  point  where  a  water  communi- 
cation might  be  effected,  by  means  of  the  river 
Chagre,  which  empties  into  the  sea  of  Antilles. 
This  river  is  navigable  to  Cruces,  where  it  is  one 
hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  width,  and  it  may  be  as- 
cended, in  four  or  five  days,  to  this  place,  from 
whence  to  Panama  it  is  only  five  small  leagues,  ac- 
cording to  Humboldt.  Between  these  two  points 
the  Cordillera  stretches  north  j  from  the  summit  of 
which,  it  is  said  that  both  oceans  can  be  seen  at 
the  same  time.  Upon  an  assertion  of  Wafer,  that 
the  hills,  forming  the  central  chain  of  this  Cordil- 
lera, are  separated  from  one  another  by  valleys, 
which  allow  free  course  for  the  passage  of  rivers, 
Humboldt  remarks,  that  if  this  is  true,  we  might 
believe  in  the  possibility  of  a  canal  from  Cruces 
to  Panama,  of  which  the  navigation  would  only  be 
interrupted  by  a  few  locks. 

It  is  astonishing,  that,  although  the  project  of  a 
canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Darien  has  occupied 
every  mind  for  more  than  three  centuries,  no  sur- 
vey of  the  ground  has  ever  been  made ;  the  practi- 
cability of  such  a  canal,  however,  can  no  more  be 
doubted,  than  the  immeasurable  mass  of  benefits 
which  would  result  from  it  to  the  commercial 
world.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  that  a  communi- 
cation of  navigable  waters  across  that  narrow  isth- 
mus which  connects  the  two  Americas,  would  pro- 


239 

duce  as  momentous  changes  upon  the  commerce 
and  the  wealth  of  the  world,  as  the  discovery  of 
the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Like  that,  it  would  change  the  course  of  naviga- 
tion to  the  East,  and  Peru  and  Mexico  would  be 
intervening  points  in  that  new  route,  with  the  en- 
terprise and  industry  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  rich  products  of 
Asia  on  the  other,  and  eager  to  exchange  their 
gold  and  silver  for  the  manufactured  goods  of  the 
former,  and  the  silks  and  spices  of  the  latter.  Next 
to  Peru  and  Mexico,  the  United  States  are  more 
interested  in  this  splendid  project  than  any  other 
nation,  on  account  of  their  proximity  to  South  Ame- 
rica, their  commerce  with  the  East  Indies,  the  pre- 
cious metals  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  the  furs  of  Noot- 
ka  Sound,  and  their  establishment  at  Columbia  ri- 
ver, on  the  Pacific  ocean. 

2d.  At  least  five  millions  of  new  consumers  of  fo- 
reign goods  will  be  created  at  once,  whenever  the 
colonial  system  shall  be  destroyed.  And  whether 
the  much  abused  people  of  this  country  shall  be- 
come warriors  or  agriculturists:  whether  there 
shall  arise  a  Caesar,  or  a  Washington,  to  foster  their 
infant  liberties,  or  bury  them  in  the  dust;  or  some 
descendant  of  the  Incas,  inspired  with  the  genius 
of  Maneo  Capac,  shall  arise  to  break  their  iron 
yoke,  and  to  collect  together,  in  their  ancient  me- 
tropolis, the  wandering  and  wretched  remnant  of 
the  children  of  the  Sun;  whatever  may  be  the  fu- 
ture fortunes  of  the  Peruvians,  it  is  certain  that  the 
empire  of  commerce  will  be  extended,  and  the  en- 


240 

terprise  and  industry  of  the  whole  world  attracted 
to  their  shores.  And  those  Peruvian  warriors, 
who  are  now  fighting  the  battles  of  their  country 
on  the  plains  of  Rio  de  la  Plata,  in  Chili,  and  on 
the  ocean,  and  mingling  with  those  who  are  in  close 
communication  with  enlightened  Europeans,  will 
return,  like  the  soldiers  of  the  Cross,  to  their  na- 
tive country,  laden  with  the  spoil,  if  not  of  con- 
quest, of  civilization  and  arts. 

Upper  and  Low  Peru  will,  in  all  probability, 
return  to  their  primitive  political  situation,  and  be 
united  under  the  same  government ;  and  prompted 
by  that  spirit  of  rivalship,  which  is  inherent  in  na- 
tions, as  well  as  in  individuals,  and  by  the  most  ob- 
vious dictates  of  policy,  they  will  eagerly  throw 
open  their  numerous  ports  to  foreign  commerce,  in 
order  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  advance  of  their 
sister  states,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  in  national 
prosperity ;  and  with  their  precious  metals,  they 
will  purchase,  directly  of  foreign  merchants,  every 
thing  they  want,  without  waiting  for  a  yard  of  cloth 
to  reach  them  by  travelling  hundreds  of  miles 
across  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres.  And  their 
harbours  being  more  commodious  than  those  of 
Chili,  and  their  climate  finer,  greater  attractions 
w  ill  be  presented  to  foreign  merchants,  to  invite 
them  to  their  ports. 

The  prospect  which  is  opening  to  the  commer- 
cial enterprise  of  the  United  States,  is  of  the  most 
interesting  character.  From  the  proximity  of  the 
United  States  to  Peru,  they  will  be  able  to  carry 


241 

on  their  trade  with  that  country  with  far  greater  fa- 
cilities than  any  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  They 
will  be  able  to  procure  from  Peru  all  the  specie 
which  they  may  want,  either  to  supply  the  place  of 
Bank  paper,  as  a  circulating  medium,  or  to  sustain 
its  shattered  credit ;  and  to  carry  on,  upon  a  more 
profitable  and  extended  scale,  their  commerce  with 
the  East.  JJl  may  surprise  those  who  are  unac- 
quainted with  the  extent  of  that  commerce,  to  learn, 
that  at  least  three  millions  of  dollars  are  annually 
shipped  to  China,  for  the  single  article  of  tea ;  and 
that,  from  J  uly  1 8 1 7,  to  April  1 8 1 8,  five  millions,  se- 
ven hundred  thousand  Spanish  dollars  arrived  in 
the  port  of  Canton,  in  American  vessels. 

The  precious  metals  can  be  obtained  in  Peru, 
for  several  commodities,  which  I  am  informed,  can 
be  exported  cheaper  from  the  United  States  than 
from  any  other  nation:  such  as  coarse  cottons, 
ships,  leather,  furniture,  hats,  castings,  nails,  car- 
riages, and  some  other  articles.  Peru  is  not  now, 
and  will  not  soon  become,  a  manufacturing  coun- 
try ;  its  population  is  too  thin,  and  it  has  other  more 
abundant  sources  of  wealth.  The  trade  to  be  car- 
ried on  with  that  country,  therefore,  will  be  princi- 
pally in  manufactured  goods,  which  command  high 
prices.*  If  the  United  States  shall  participate  in 
this  trade,  their  manufactures  will  thereby  be  en- 
couraged;— an  object,  no  doubt,  of  great  impor- 

*  The  price  of  iron  in  times  of  peace,  has  been  eighty  and  ninety  dollars 
for  100  lbs.  and  that  of  steel,  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  dollars  for  100  lbs. ; 
common  writing  paper,  twelve  dollars  a  ream;  broad  cloths  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  dollars  a  yard  ;  velvet  from  six  to  eight;  bayetas,  a  fine  stuff  like 
llminel,  from  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  five  dollars  a  yard  ;  boots  twenty- 
five  dollars  n  pair  ;   levantine  silks  five  and  six  dollars  a  vard. 

2  H 


242 

lance  to  their  prosperity,  and  which  some  of  their 
best  citizens  have  much  at  heart.  And  if  manu- 
factures are  ever  extensively  and  prosperously  es- 
tablished in  the  United  States,  it  will  be  owing  to 
foreign,  not  domestic  demand  tor  manufactured 
goods;  without  such  demand,  they  will  never  flou- 
rish, no  matter  how  powerful  the  patronage,  how 
lavish  the  bounties,  or  how  heavy  tne,  impositions 
upon  foreign  goods.  But  aside  from  considera- 
tions of  mercantile  gain,  or  the  encouragement  of 
manufactures,  the  people  of  the  United  States  have 
a  powerful  interest  in  establishing  a  close  con-* 
nexion  with  their  sister  Republics  in  the  south ; 
the  welfare  of  both  parties  calls  loudly  for  such  an 
alliance :  and  more  especially  since  the  crowned 
heads  of  Europe  have  made  common  cause  for  the 
stability  of  their  thrones,  and  have  formed  their 
memorable  league  of  legitimacy.  It  is  here  in  the 
two  Americas  that  the  people,  strong  in  their  prin- 
ciples, and  rich  in  resources,  and  displaying  hu- 
manity and  justice,  constancy  and  courage,  should 
erect  a  formidable  barrier  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  European  tyranny;  it  is  here,  that  the 
proud  waves  of  despotism  should  be  stayed;  and 
Jiere,  should  be  buried  for  ever  in  the  grave  of  ob- 
livion, that  calamitous  maxim  which  has  been  can- 
onized for  ages  in  Europe,  that  Kings  rule  by  the 
Grace  of  Gnd. 

But  in  America,  there  has  been  erected  a  mon- 
archy whose  sovereign,  too  powerless  to  remain 
in  Europe,  was  forced  to  flee  across  the  Atlantic, 
and  to  seek  for  safety,  and  for  refuge  in  his  remote 


243 

colonies ;  and  no  sooner  did  he  set  foot  upon  the 
shores  of  America,  than,  fired  with  that  insatiate 
lust  of  conquest,  which  has  drenched  Europe  with 
blood,  and  hung  the  world,  in  mourning,  he  direct- 
ed his  arms  against  an  infant  people,  still  strug- 
gling in  the  iron  grasp  of  their  oppressors,  in  or- 
der to  fasten  upon  them' the  chains  from  which  he 
had  just  escaped.  This  delirium  of  domination, 
which  has  directed  all  the  steps  of  King  John  of 
the  Brazils,  has  led  him  to  desolate  the  fairest 
portion  of  the  globe ;  but  he  has  been  taught,  amid 
the  thunder  of  cannon,  and  the  groans  of  the  dy- 
ing, that  the  time  has  gone  by,  when  men,  who  are 
resolved  to  be  free,  can  be  subdued,  or  monnrchs 
can  rule  by  the  sword ;  and  those  naked  and  igno- 
rant men,  who  have  been  opposed  on  the  plains 
of  Monte  Video,  to  soldiers  inured  to  war,  in  con- 
tending against  the  armies  of  Napoleon,  have 
shown  to  the  world,  that  they  prefer  the  horrors 
of  war  to  the  calm  of  despotism,  and  death  to  sla- 
very. 

The  names  of  the  gallant  chiefs,  who  have  so 
heroically  conducted  to  the  camp  of  glory,  an  un- 
disciplined and  inexperienced  multitude,  to  resist 
the  eucroachments  of  foreign  tyrants,  will  be  trans- 
mitted with  honour  to  posterity ;  and  the  history 
of  the  revolution,  when  it  unfolds  its  black  pages, 
inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  European  tyrants, 
who  have  traversed  the  ocean,  to  deluge  with  the 
blood  of  her  sons,  the  innocent  soil  of  America, 
will  at  the  same  time  exhibit  in  its  most  brilliant 
and  splendid  pages,  the  names  of  General  Rivero, 


244 

and  Don  Jose  Artigas, — that  extraordinary  man, 
whom  nature  has  so  prodigally  gifted  with  genius, 
and  who  has  so  gloriously  sustained  himself  and  his 
country,  amid  the  convulsions  of  intestine  war,  and 
the  conflicting  passions  of  the  human  heart ;  who 
has  been  the  stable  rock  of  the  ocean,  against 
which  the  billows  of  the  ambition  of  the  Brazilian 
cabinet  have  beat  in  vain,  and  whose  important  ser- 
vices for  his  country  must  command  the  gratitude 
of  his  compatriots,  and  the  admiration  of  the  world. 
The  fame  of  the  Orientals  and  their  gallant 
Chiefs  will  be  eternal,  like  the  flow  of  their  noble 
river,  and  fresh  as  the  verdure  of  its  shores. 


fc 


NOTES. 


NOTE  1.  PAGE  13. 

ANTEQUERA. 

The  history  of  Antequera,  contained  in  the  writings  of  Char- 
levoix, has  been  implicitly  followed  by  Wilcoke  in  his  "  History 
of  Buenos  Ayres."  This  work  is  principally  a  compilation  from 
Ulloa,  the  "  Viagero  Universal,"  the  "  Dictionario  Geograhco" 
of  Alcedo,  and  from  Helms  ;  it  contains  many  valuable  facts  in- 
termingled with  numerous  errors.  My  information  in  relation 
to  Antequera,  has  been  derived  from  documents  in  the  possession 
of  Calyo  y  Antequera,  and  Pereyra  Castro,  two  canons  of  Cuz- 
co,  relatives  of  Antequera,  whose  offices  were  conferred  upon 
them  by  the  King  of  Spain,  in  consequence,  as  it  is  stated  in 
their  Patents,  of  the  injuries  sustained  by  the  family  of  Ante- 
quera, in  his  punishment,  and  the  seizure  and  confiscation  of  his 
estates. 

The  trial  of  Antequera  first  commenced  at  Madrid,  and  was 
afterwards  transferred  to  Lima ;  it  lasted  several  years,  and  enor- 
mous sums  of  money  were  expended  in  its  prosecution.  A  copy 
of  the  proceedings  of  this  trial  is  preserved  at  Cuzco,  by  Gar- 
cia, an  officer  in  the  Cathedral  there,  and  also  Castro,  a  literary 
man  of  that  country,  in  his  "  Memoirs,"  has  preserved  a  history 
of  these  transactions. 

It  is  not  at  all  surprising  to  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the 
policy  of  the  Spanish  Government,  that  so  little  of  this  revolu- 
tion is  known  to  the  world,  as  it  was  even  prohibited  by  law  to 
speak  upon  the  subject.  "  Que  no  se  hable  mas  de  esto,"  was 
the  imperative  mandate  of  the  King,  and  wo  be  to  him  who  dar- 
ed to  infringe  it. 


216 

NOTE  2.  PAGE  17. 
THE  JESUITS. 

The  following'  curious  notice  of  the  Jesuits  of  Paraguay  in  the 
year  1700,  is  extracted  from  "  Frezier's  Voyage  to  the  South 
Sea." 

"  Every  parish  is  obliged  to  maintain  a  number  of  disciplined 
troops,  by  regiments  of  horse  and  foot,  in  proportion  to  its 
strength.  Each  regiment  consists  of  six  companies  of  fifty  men 
each,  a  colonel,  six  captains,  six  lieutenants,  and  a  general  offi- 
cer, who  exercises  them  every  Sunday  after  vespers.  The  officers, 
who  are  brought  up  from  father  to  son,  are  very  expert  in  disci- 
plining them.  It  is  upon  no  other  occasion  that  the  parishes 
have  a  communication,  but  only  to  form  an  army,  which  the  se- 
nior general  officer  commands,  under  the  direction  of  a  Jesuit 
who  is  Generalissimo.  The  arms  of  these  indians  are  fuzees, 
swords,  bayonets,  and  slings,  with  which  they  throw  stones  of 
five  pounds  weight,  and  they  are  very  dexterous  at  that  weapon. 
The  Missions  together  can  assemble  60,000  men  in  eight  days 
time.  The  indians  have  nothing  of  their  own  ;  the  Jesuits  have 
all,  and  those  poor  people  who  have  a  right  to  be  free,  having 
voluntarily  subjected  themselves,  are  treated  like  slaves.  And 
in  short  300,000  families  and  more,  work  for  forty  Jesuits,  and 
own  and  obey  none  but  them.  One  circumstance  which  makes 
good  this  assertion,  is  that  when  the  Governor  of  Buenos  Ayres 
received  orders  to  lay  siege  to  St.  Gabriel,  in  which  a  detach- 
ment of  4,000  Indian  horse  assisted,  with  a  Jesuit  at  their  head, 
the  Governor  commanded  their  Colonel  to  make  an  attack  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  but  the  indians  refused  to  obey  because 
they  had  not  the  Jesuit's  order,  who  being  sent  for,  arrived,  under 
whom  they  ranged  themselves  and  executed  the  order  from  his 
mouth." 

Since  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from  this  country  in  1773, 
the  Indians  of  the  missions  have  gradually  relapsed  into  their 
original  barbarism  ;  a  pretty  convincing  proof  that  the  Jesuits 
did  not  proceed  upon  fundamental  principles  of  improvement,  in 
their  institutions.  The  fact  is,  the  policy  of  the  Jesuits  was  ut- 
terly selfish  ;  they  never  had  in  view  the  permanent  or  the  tem- 


247 

porary  good  of  the  Indians,  any  further  than  they  could  make 
them  subservient  to  their  own  purposes  and  interests.  These 
assertions  can  never  be  contradicted,  when  it  is  known  that  the 
Jesuits  never  taught  them  the  Spanish  language,  nor  even  to 
write  their  own  language,  which  the  Jesuits  themselves  well  un- 
derstood. 

NOTE  3.  PAGE  19. 

In  Pinkerton's  Geography,  edited  by  Dr.  Barton  of  Philadel- 
phia, is  given  a  specimen  of  the  Quechua  language,  and  it  is 
said  that  it  has  the  same  formation  as  the  Greek  language,  and 
that  it  is  declined  by  altering  the  terminations,  and  that  it  has  also 
modes  and  conjugations.  It  is  also  stated  that  it  is  deficient  in  the 
following  letters  ;  b,  d,  f,  g,  r,  x,  z.  Dr.  Barton  gives  a  specimen 
of  the  language  taken  from  a  Grammar  printed  at  Lima  in  1614, 
but  I  fear  the  notion  of  this  deficiency  is  derived  from  ignorance 
of  the  pronunciation  of  the  language,  or  from  defects  in  the 
grammar.  A  native  of  Peru,  I  am  well  acquainted  with  this 
language,  and  can  mention  many  instances  in  which  these  letters 
are  used.  The  r,  for  instance,  is  found  in  roona — men, 
roomee — stone,  ruka — hollow  5  there  is  a  similar  word  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  but  with  a  different  meaning  ;  the  letter  b  oc- 
curs in  the  word  bela — blood,  z  in  weekza — stomach,  x  iu 
soxta — seven.  The  use  of  these  several  letters  depends  upon 
the  pronunciation  of  the  language,  which  those  who  have  exclud- 
ed them  from  the  language,  could  not  have  understood. 

The  Quechua  language  contains  more  vowels  than  consonants, 
which  renders  it  particularly  soft  and  sweet ;  and  I  have  seen 
very  beautiful  compositions  written  in  this  language  by  Peru- 
vian Priests. 

1  will  here  present  a  short  specimen  of  this  language,  to  shew 
its  peculiar  sweetness.  It  is  an  effort  of  a  Peruvian  Priest  to 
express  the  superlative  excellence  of  the  character  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 

f-t/ea,  soo-mak-nooste-alya,  kancha-rene,  inte-tapas, 
k>  ■  >i  is,  koil-yu-koona-tapas.--My  sweet  mother,  beautiful 
young  Princt  >s,  you  are  u*  brilliant  as  the  sun,  moon  and  stars. 


218 

This  language  is  sufficiently  copious  for  the  Indians,  in  their 
present  state  of  civilization,  and  even  contains  words  to  express 
abstract  ideas.  And  here  I  cannot  but  express  my  surprise  when 
I  read  in  the  history  of  the  learned  Dr.  Robertson,  that  the 
"  Peruvians  had  not  indeed  made  such  progress  in  observation 
or  inquiry  as  to  have  attained  just  conceptions  of  the  Deity ; 
nor  was  there  in  their  language  any  proper  name  or  appellation 
of  the  Supreme  Power,  which  intimated  that  they  had  formed 
any  idea  of  him  as  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  world."  This 
error  undoubtedly  arose  from  this  learned  Historian's  not  under- 
standing the  meaning  of  the  word  Pachacamak.  What  word 
more  proper  to  express  the  idea  of  the  Supreme  Being  than  this, 
which  is  the  same  as  "God"  in  English,  "  Deus"  in  Latin, 
"  ©eoff"  in  Greek. 

Pacha  means  the  Universe,  or  the  globe  which  we  inhabit,  and 
Camak,  Creator  and  Preserver. 

It  was  this  unfortunate  error  which  undoubtedly  led  the  Spa- 
niards to  destroy  the  Temple  of  the  Peruvians,  dedicated  to 
Pachacamak.  And  here  I  cannot  but  remark  how  different 
from  the  conduct  of  the  Spanish  Priests,  was  that  of  St.  Paul,  at 
Athens,  on  beholding  a  Temple  dedicated  to  the  "  Unknown 
God;"  "  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,"  said  he  to  the  Athe- 
nians, "him  declare  I  unto  you."  The  Spaniards  destroy- 
ed with  fire  and  sword  the  religion  of  the  Incas,  because  it 
was  unlike  their  own,  or  because  they  were  ignorant  of  its  prin- 
ciples, as  if  religion  was  not  a  universal  sentiment  of  mankind, 
and  an  innate  principle  of  the  human  heart;  and  indeed  if  reli- 
gion is  an  attribute  of  the  Deity,  if  it  softens  the  heart,  if  it 
unites  in  the  bonds  of  brotherhood,  men  of  different  characters 
and  climes  ; — if,  in  short,  it  is  the  great  tie  of  humanity,  and  is 
chiefly  manifested  in  extended  charities,  in  love  to  God  and 
man,  I  would  ask,  where  is  the  people  who  have  exercised  this 
sublime  virtue,  in  a  higher  degree  than  the  Peruvians  ?  They 
worshipped  the  Sun,  not  because  they  believed  it  to  be  God,  but 
because  they  felt  its  kindly  influence  upon  the  natural  objects 
around  them,  and  upon  themselves,  and  their  worship  was  the 
effusion  of  their  grateful  hearts.     They  were  kind  to  the  poor. 


249 

the  widow  and  the  oi-phan  ;  the  care  of  these  unfortunates  was  a 
part  of  their  religion,  and  was  enjoined  by  their  laws.  There 
were  officers  in  every  village,  appointed  for  this  object,  and  there 
are  now  to  be  seen  in  the  country,  the  ruins  of  store-houses  and 
public  granaries,  which  were  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  in- 
digent. 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  against  two  nations,  the  Peruvians 
and  the  Moors,  both  the  most  charitable  people  in  the  world,  the 
Spanish  Christians  have  waged  the  most  calamitous  warfare,  and 
shed  oceans  of  their  blood.  "  They,  (the  Moors  in  Spain,) 
says  Mr.  Noah,  in  his  interesting  Travels  in  Europe  and  Africa, 
"  had  virtues  of  the  highest  order  ;  no  nation  on  earth,  even  unto 
this  day,  took  such  delight  in  the  exercise  of  charity  as  the 
Moors.  They  distributed  to  the  poor,  bread,  money,  and  part 
of  their  agricultural  and  commercial  products  ;  built  hospitals  for 
the  sick,  and  carefully  protected  and  nourished  the  stranger." 
"What  just  motive,"  says  the  virtuous  Las  Casas,  "  could  the 
Spanish  government  have  in  declaring  war  against  the  Indians, 
who  had  never  done  them  a  wrong,  or  injustice  in  any  manner  ? 
The  Spaniards  have  discovered  the  secret  of  entirely  depopulat- 
ing countries  filled  with  inhabitants  ;  they  have  massacred  them, 
in  order  to  seize  upon  their  gold  and  silver ;  they  have  caused 
others  to  perish,  by  making  them  toil  to  excess,  or  by  obliging 
them  to  carry  heavy  loads  for  one  and  two  hundred  leagues  :  so 
that  for  the  sake  of  riches,  they  sacrificed  the  lievesof  the  Indi- 
ans." 

When  I  have  been  walking  amoug  the  ruins  of  their  ancient 
castles,  their  solemn  temples,  their  high  roads,  their  aqueducts, 
which  have  withstood  the  mouldering  hand  of  time,  and  the 
warring  of  the  elements,  I  have  asked  myself,  where  are  those 
powerful  monarchs  who  patronized,  those  ingenious  artists  who 
erected  these  magnificent  works  ;  where  those  splendid  gardens, 
in  which  plants  and  animals  of  the  natural  size  made  of  solid  gold 
and  silver  were  exhibited;  where  their  astronomical  observatories ; 
where  their  mild  and  equal  laws,  their  paternal  government,  their 
institutions  of  charity  and  religion  ?  I  am  answered  by*  the 
whole  world, — they  have  all  perished  by  the  hand  of  violence 
and  superstition! 

2  1 


230 


NOTE  4.  PAGE  24. 

The  observation  to  which  this  note  refers  may  startle  those 
who  have  considered  Peru  a  barbarous  country  at  the  period  of 
the  conquest.  If  such,  however,  will  carry  back  their  recollec- 
tions of  the  history  of  Europe  to  the  period  under  consideration, 
rhev  will  find  that  despotism  never  marched  over  the  liberties  of 
mankind  with  strides  more  fearful  and  tremendous.  The  period, 
indeed,  presents  us  with  a  constellation  of  greatness  unrivalled 
in  the  annals  of  the  world ;  but  it  presents  us  also  with  the  ex- 
tremes of  superstition,  bigotry,  violence  and  oppression, — traits 
which  are  too  often  the  characteristics  of  the  brightest  and  no- 
blest endowments  of  the  mind.  The  brilliancy  of  the  era  ought 
not  to  dazzle  us  so  far  as  to  blind  us  to  the  miseries  which  over- 
spread the  whole  of  what  was  then  called  the  civilized  world. 
The  expedition  of  Pizarro  to  the  Pacific  Coast  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, was  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V,  who  was  Sovereign  of 
Austria,  Germany,  Prussia,  Holland,  the  Netherlands,  Spain, 
aud  some  of  the  Italian  States  ;  Francis  I.  governed  France ; 
Henry  VIII.  England ;  Solyman  II.  Turkey  ;  Leo  X.  was  Pope. 
A  list  of  contemporaneous  sovereigns,  such  as  these,  is  "  confir- 
mation strong,"  of  the  truth  of  the  position,  and  the  most  skep- 
tical will  not  be  disposed  to  travel  further.  Another  considera- 
tion still  more  strongly  enforces  the  idea  of  the  tyranny  of  the 
limes.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  that  the  Reforma- 
tion was  effected,  an  event  so  glorious  and  beneficial  to  the  Chris- 
tian world,  and  within  about  ten  years  after  his  abdication,  the 
Low  Countries  rebelled,  and  gained  their  independence.  Revo- 
lutions are  generally  the  result  of  actual,  or  at  least,  fancied  op- 
pression ;  and  in  regard  to  the  reality  of  the  oppression,  both  in 
Church  and  State,  under  Leo  X.  and  Charles  V.  there  cannot,  I 
imagine,  be  a  question  raised. 

It  is  not  contended  that  the  government  of  the  Incas  was  free 
from  evils.  The  Peruvians  were  essentially  free  ;  they  exercised 
the  right  of  self-government,  and  lived  under  rulers  of  their 
choice,  and  the  history  of  Peru,  even  as  related  by  the  Spaniards. 


251 

records  no  feature  of  systematic  oppression,  or  of  wanton  en- 
croachment, by  the  Incas,  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

In  confirmation  of  the  above  opinions,  and  in  contradiction  to 
some  assertions  of  Dr.  Robertson,  contained  in  his  History  of 
America,  the  following  extract  from  Count  Carly's  Let. 
Amer.  is  submitted  to  the  reader. 

"  It  was  a  fundamental  maxim  of  the  sovereigns  of  Peru,  to 
oblige  their  subjects  to  be  happy.  This  was  the  only  empire  in 
which  this  glorious  object  was  attained.  The  Incas  knew  well, 
that  man  is  governed  by  opinion  more  easily  than  by  force.  In 
the  hands  of  a  discreet  ruler,  the  government  of  opinion,  is  a 
source  of  blessings,  but  it  is  a  terrible  engine  when  wielded  by 
the  ignorant ;  hence  the  danger  and  difficulty  of  opposing  error. 
For  this  reasou  the  first  care  of  the  Incas  was,  to  impress  upon 
the  people  who  submitted  themselves  to  their  authority,  that  there 
was  one  Supreme  Being,  the  Creator  and  Preserver  of  the  Uni- 
verse, and  that  the  Sun  was  the  source  of  physical  good,  the 
cause  of  the  fecundity  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  growth  of  all  pro- 
ductions, both  animal  and  vegetable.  These  people  being  per- 
suaded by  Manco  Capac  and  Ocllo  his  queen,  that  their  existence 
was  derived  from  the  Sun,  the  same  idea  was  transmitted  to  their 
posterity;  and  the  Peruvians  believed  generally  that  their  sovereigns 
were  descended  directly  from  these  children  of  the  Sun.  The 
laws  of  the  Incas,  being  directed  solely  to  the  well-being  of  indi- 
viduals and  of  society  at  large,  it  is  natural  that  they  should 
have  been  regarded  by  these  people  as  beings  emanating  from 
Divinity,  and  they  persuaded  themselves  that  the  infraction  of 
these  laws  would  be  punished  both  in  this  world  and  that  to 
come,  which  was  also  unceasingly  inculcated  by  the  chief  men 
of  the  empire.  The  worship  of  the  Peruvians,  as  established  by 
the  Incas,  was  innocent  and  pure,  the  spirit  of  which  led  them  to 
abolish  human  sacrifices.  The  first  maxim  that  was  impressed 
upon  them,  was  that  great  maxim  of  reason,  Look  upon  all  men 
as  brethren,  and  never  do  that  to  another,  ivhich  one  would  not 
wish  to  have  done  to  himself.'" 


252 

NOTES.  PAGE  25. 

TUPAC-AMARU. 

The  revolution  of  Tupac-Amaru,  which  was  briefly  noticed  in 
the  body  of  this  work,  has  been  misrepresented  by  historians, 
and  great  injustice  has  been  done  to  the  memory  of  that  illus- 
trious leader.  Baron  de  Humboldt  is  incorrect  in  his  biographi- 
cal notice  of  Tupac- Amaru,  having  listened  to  the  vulgar  tales  of 
the  Spaniards,  which  he  heard  at  Lima,  in  relation  to  his  charac- 
ter. He  speaks  of  him  thus,  "  Jose  Gabriel  Condorcanqui,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Inca  Tupac-Amaru,  appeared  at  the  head  of  an 
Indian  army  before  the  walls  of  Cuzco.  He  was  the  son  of  the 
Cacique  of  Tongasuca,  a  village  of  the  Province  of  Tinta,  or  ra- 
ther the  son  of  the  Cacique's  wife  ;  for  it  is  certain  that  the  pre- 
tended Inca  was  a  Meztizo,  and  that  his  true  father  was  a  monk  ;" 
and  he  imputes  his  conduct  to  private  resentment  for  disappoint- 
ed ambition,  and  to  a  sentiment  of  vengeance." 

Dean  Funes,  in  his  "  History  of  Buenos  Ayres,"  has  correctly 
related  the  story  of  this  revolution,  the  first  part  of  which  he  has 
taken  from  a  sketch  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Sea  and  myself,  and  pub- 
lished in  London,  in  1815. 

The  principal  cause  of  this  revolution,  was  the  oppressive  oper- 
ation of  a  law  authorizing  the  Spanish  magistrates  to  distribute 
among  the  people,  foreign  goods  at  fixed  prices,  and  which  they 
were  obliged  to  pay  for,  whether  they  wanted  them  or  not.  This 
was  called  the  repartimientos.  It  was  oppressive  beyond  mea- 
sure, to  the  Indians ;  goods  of  no  use  to  them,  were  forced  upon 
them,  even  camhrick  needles,  spectacles,  and  playing  cards. 
It  was  this  unheard-of  species  of  oppression,  among  many  other 
acts  of  tyranny,  enumerated  in  the  masterly  letter  of  Tupac- Am- 
aru  addressed  to  Areche,  and  which  has  been  published,  which 
aroused  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Peru  in  1780,  to  the  at- 
tempt to  put  down  the  Spanish  government  in  that  country. 
The  project  was  conceived  by  several  of  the  noblest  citizens  of 
Cuzco,  whose  leader  was  Moscoso,  then  Bishop  of  Cuzco,  a  native 
of  Arequipa,  and  of  one  of  the  most  noble  families  of  Peru,  and 


253 

who  has  since  been  Archbishop  of  Granada,  in  Spain.  Tupac 
Amaru  was  the  person  who  was  selected  to  carry  this  project  into 
execution,  and  he  was  promised  the  zealous  co-operation  of  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  Cuzco  ;  upon  which  assurance  he  relied 
with  the  unsuspecting  confidence  of  a  soldier.  The  first  step 
which  he  took,  was  to  seize  upon  the  Governor  of  his  province, 
Arriaga ;  and  finding  from  his  papers,  that  he  had  distributed 
am6ng  the  people,  three  times  the  amount  of  goods  which  the 
law  allowed,  accused  him  of  robbing  the  people  and  the  King, 
and  he  was  executed  in  the  name  of  the  King,  as  a  public  rob- 
ber. This  took  place  in  November  1780,  and  instantly  all  Peru 
was  in  arms.  A  bloody  battle  was  fought  on  the  plains  of  San- 
garara,  near  Cuzco,  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  all  cut  off,  and 
the  victorious  leader,  with  his  brows  bound  with  the  imperial  fil- 
let of  the  Incas,  marched  upon  Cuzco,  to  re-establish  their  em- 
pire in  their  ancient  metropolis.  He  laid  siege  to  the  city,  and 
called  upon  the  projectors  of  the  revolution  to  aid  him  now  in  its 
final  accomplishment.  They  hesitated  for  a  few  days,  and  all 
was  lost.  Tupac-Amaru,  conscious  that  his  fate  was  sealed,  ad- 
dressed to  them  a  letter,  upbraiding  them  for  their  bad  faith  and 
their  cowardice,  and  telling  them  that  he  should  be  destroyed. 
He  thereupon  retired  to  his  former  positions.  Now  the  work  of 
blood  commenced  in  earnest,  and  notwithstanding  the  orders  of 
Tupac- Amaru  to  put  to  death  only  Spaniards,  and  to  spare  the 
Creoles,  the  half  civilized  Indians  killed  indiscriminately  all 
white  men,  and  it  was  this  unfortunate  circumstance  which  was 
finally  the  ruin  of  the  cause.  The  revolution  now  spread  all  over 
Peru,  and  lasted  nearly  two  years  ;  it  was  one  of  the  most  san- 
guinary contests  that  history  records.  In  vain  did  Tupac- Amaru 
and  his  friends  endeavour  to  stop  the  violence  of  the  people ; 
they  had  kindled  a  tire  which  they  had  not  power  to  extinguish, 
and  regrettiug  it  when  too  late,  made  overtures  of  peace,  which 
were  rejected  with  disdain.  At  length  Tupac-Amaru  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  and  they  inflicted  upon  him  a  pun- 
ishment which  is  a  stain  upon  their  national  character; — like 
blood-thirsty  and  ferocious  tygers,  they  tore  him  limb  from  limb ! 
The  present  revolution  has  done  justice  to  the  memory  of  this 
youthful  hero  :  had  he  been  successful,  he  would  have  been  hail- 


2M 

cd  as  the  .saviour  of  his  country  ;  and  although  his  first  act  was 
marked  with  severity,  and  fortune  smiled  not  on  him,  let  his 
name  he  rescued  from  the  foul  and  unmanly  aspersions  of  his  in- 
terested and  malignant  foes. 

I  have  stated  that  a  third  of  the  whole  population  of  Peru,  per- 
ished hy  the  hand  of  violence  in  this  revolution.  The  slaughter 
among  the  Indians  was  immense.  They  were  ignorant  of  military 
discipline,  had  hut  a  few  fire-arms,  and  were  principally  armed 
with  slings.  The  royal  army  from  Buenos  Ayres,  Tucuman,  and 
Cochabamba,  consisted  of  regular  troops.  The  Buenos  Ayreans 
were  armed  and  equipped  like  European  soldiers  ;  the  Tucumans 
composed  the  cavalry,  and  were  armed  with  butcher  knives  and 
ropes,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  yards  long,  which  they  use  in 
catching  wild  cattle.  The  arms  of  the  Cochabambians,  were 
short  clubs  loaded  with  lead,  to  which  a  rope  of  two  or  three 
yards  in  length  was  fastened,  and  which  were  used  like  slings, 
and  were  very  deadly  weapons.  The  Indians  were  scattered  all 
over  the  plains,  in  no  regular  order  or  ranks,  and  were  nothing 
more  than  an  undisciplined  and  unarmed  mob.  The  mode  of 
attacking  them  was  as  follows  ;  the  Tucuman  horsemen  first 
rode  among  the  Indians,  and  threw  them  down  with  their 
ropes,  and  the  Cochabambians  followed  with  their  clubs  and 
dispatched  them  ;  it  was  in  this  way  that  the  plains  of  Cica- 
Cica  and  Calamarca  were  covered  with  the  bodies  of  the  slain, 
and  are  even  to  this  day  whitened  with  human  bones. 

NOTE  G.  PAGE  143. 

MITA. 

The  mita  was  an  annual  conscription  of  the  Indians  to  work 
in  the  mines  of  privileged  individuals  at  Potosi,  and  for  the  king 
in  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Huancavelica.  The  Indians  were 
collected  from  a  distance  of  three  hundred  leagues  around  Poto- 
si, even  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Cuzco,  and  were  obliged  to 
defray  their  own  expenses  in  travelling ; — after  arriving  at  the 
mines,  they  received  half  a  dollar  a  day  for  their  labour,  and 
were  obliged  to  work  night  and  day.  The  Governor  of  Puno, 
Don  Jose  Gonzales,  a  very  worthy  man,  now  in  Spain,  put  a  stop 


255 

to  these  cruel  conscriptions  in  his  Province,  well  knowing  their 
injustice,  although  contrary  to  the  orders  of  the  Viceroy.  The 
Dictionary  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  in  defining  the  word  mita, 
says,  "  es  un  repartimiento  que  se  hace  por  sorteo  en  los  pueblos 
de  indios  para  sacar  el  numero  correspondiente  de  vecinos  que 
deben  emplearse  en  los  trabajos  publicos."  It  is  the  division 
which  is  made  by  lot  in  the  villages  of  the  Indians ,  in  order  to 
take  the  corresponding  number  of  the  inhabitants  which  ought 
to  be  employed  in  the  public  icorks." 

A  person,  ignorant  of  the  truth,  on  reading  this  definition, 
might  imagine  that  these  public  works  were  of  common  utility  ; 
such  as  roads,  bridges,  &c.  which  are  often  made  by  the  labour 
of  the  whole  community  ;  but,  this  was  not  the  fact :  for  it  was 
for  the  rich  miners  of  Potosi,  that  these  poor  Indians  came  so 
far  to  work,  and  digging  the  mines,  were  the  public  ivories  in 
which  the  Academy  say  they  ought  to  be  employed.  I  take 
pleasure  in  having  an  opportunity  to  expose  this  fraud  of  the 
learned  Academy  upon  the  world.  It  exhibits,  in  bold  relief, 
the  colonial  policy  of  the  Spanish  government,  from  whose  poi- 
sonous influence,  even  the  sacred  haunts  of  science,  were  not  ex- 
empt. 


NOTE  7.  PAGE  153. 
MINES. 

The  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper  and  lead,  are  the  property 
of  individuals  ; — the  quicksilver  mine  of  Huancavelica  was  work- 
ed on  the  account  of  the  King,  who  monopolizes  the  sale  of  that 
metal.  All  the  questions  in  relation  to  mining  are  determined 
according  to  a  particular  code  of  laws,  called  Ordenanzas  de  mi- 
nus, which  were  framed  by  the  viceroy  Toledo.  This  was  the 
monster  who  put  to  death  the  lnca  Sayri  Tupac  at  Vilcabamba,  a- 
gainst  the  express  orders  of  Philip  II.  for  which,  on  his  return 
to  Spain,  he  was  severely  censured,  and  finally  died  in  disgrace. 
In  this  code  is  pointed  out  every  thing  relating  to  the  discovery 
of  mines,  the  manner  of  ncquirin?  property  in  them,  and  all  dis- 


256 

putes  growing  out  of  the  subject.  When  a  person  discovers  a 
mine,  he  makes  application  to  the  political  chief  of  the  territory 
for  an  exclusive  grant,  which  he  obtains,  on  exhibiting  a  piece 
of  the  ore  from  the  mine.  The  officer,  after  ascertaining  that 
the  mine  has  never  been  worked,  grants  the  discoverer  posses- 
sion, and  free  permission  to  work  the  mine,  and  allowing  him 
the  privilege  of  opening  three  different  shafts.  After  this  privilege 
allowed  to  the  discoverer,  any  person  may  ask  and  obtain  per- 
mission to  open  other  shafts,  provided  they  do  not  interfere  with 
those  previously  granted.  The  discoverers  are  generally  mes- 
tizos or  Indians,  who,  for  trifling  sums,  sell  their  rights  to  the 
wealthy  Spaniards  or  Creoles.  The  same  code  requires  that  the 
mines  be  constantly  worked,  or  held  in  possession ;  when  a  mine 
is  abandoned  for  a  year,  it  is  considered  as  derelict,  and  anj  per- 
son may  take  possession  of  it.  To  prevent  this  forfeiture  for 
non-user,  however,  it  is  sufficient  if  one  person  is  kept  in  pos- 
session. When  mines  are  discovered  on  private  property,  the 
proprietor  is  obliged  to  allow  them  to  be  worked,  or  to  sell. 
These  laws  have  a  tendency  to  encourage  mining ;  they  are  ju- 
diciously framed,  and  are  perhaps  the  best  part  of  the  colonial 
policy  of  Spain.  The  remedies  are  prompt,  and  their  provisions 
will  meet  almost  every  possible  case.  Previous  to  the  revolu- 
tion, no  foreigner  could  be  proprietor  of  a  mine,  but  now  the 
Congress  of  the  United  Provinces  has  placed  foreigners  on  the 
same  footing  as  natives  in  this  respect. 


NOTE  8.  PAGE  162. 

i 

TADEO  HAEJYKE. 

This  gentleman,  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Prague  and  Vienna,  visited  America  in  the  mineralogical  expe- 
dition of  the  Baron  de  Nordenjiytch,  in  the  quality  of  natural- 
ist to  his  Catholic  Majesty.  In  the  year  1792  he  accompanied 
the  celebrated  navigator  Malaspina,  in  his  expedition  to  ex- 
plore the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  has  visited  all  Asia,  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe,  the  United  States,  Mexico,  Peru  and  Chili, 
and  after  having  seen  all  these   countries,  he  finally  fixed  his 


257 

residence  in  the  Province  of  Cochabamba,  preferring  it  to  all, 
the  other  regions  of  the  globe  which  he  had  visited.  He  is  a 
philosopher,  and  his  time  has  been  employed  in  exploring  the 
country,  and  studying  every  department  of  its  history.  He 
has  made  an  extensive  collection  of  all  its  productions.  In 
the  year  1810,  when  the  auxiliary  army  of  Buenos  Ayres  oc- 
cupied Upper  Peru,  M.  Castelli  found  this  philosopher  there, 
and  that  he  had  composed  a  large  work  upon  the  natural 
history  of  the  country.  Castelli  immediately  took  measures 
to  have  types  founded  at  Potosi,  in  order  to  print  the  work, 
but  the  sudden  defeat  of  the  Patriots  put  an  end  to  the 
project.  Don  Manuel  Sarratea,  distinguished  for  his 
talents,  and  his  devotion  to  the  cause  of  his  country,  and 
his  love  of  science,  (and  to  whose  worth  I  take  great  pleasure 
in  bearing  this  public  testimony,  and  whose  friendship  I  am 
proud  to  enjoy,)  when  he  was  in  the  administration  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  made  every  exertion  to  coramuuicate  with  Haenke,  in 
order  to  procure  his  manuscript  to  publish  it  in  London,  but 
without  effect,  as  Cochabamba,  during  almost  the  whole  of  the 
revolution,  has  been  occupied  by  royal  troops.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that,  upon  the  success  of  the  Patriots,  the  publication  of  this 
work,  so  interestiug  to  the  world,  will  not  be  delayed. 

To  Mr.  Sarratea  is  owed  the  introduction  of  many  plants  and 
valuable  productions  into  Buenos  Ayres ;  and  particularly,  the 
emigration  of  the  celebrated  M.  Bonpland  to  South  America, 
who  carried  with  him  his  herbarium,  and  many  precious  exotics 
to  enrich  the  country.  M.  Bonpland  upon  communicating  with 
Haenke,  will  immediately  publish  the  natural  history  of  the 
country,  and  a  work  of  much  interest  may  be  expected  from  the 
united  efforts  of  these  learned  men. 

From  Mr.  Haenke's  communications  to  the  government  of 
Buenos  Ayres  ui  1799,  and  several  articles  published  from  time 
to  time,  in  the  public  journals  of  that  city,  I  have  derived  many 
facts,  of  which  I  have  availed  myself,  in  my  account  of  the  na- 
tural productions  of  Upper  Peru. 


2  K 


CONTENTS. 


LETTER  I. 

The  United  Provinces  of  South  America, — their  names  and  boundaries ;— • 
Upper  Peru,—itsintendencies ;—  Paraguay,— free  government  there  in  1725; 
— Charlevoix ; — Comuneros  ; — Dean  Funes ; — Don  Jose  Antequera  ; — The 
Jesuits, — their  influence  ;— the  Missions; — Manufactories; — Art  of  Print- 
ing ; — The  Quechua  and  Aymara  Languages,  Page  19. 

LETTER  II. 

War  between  Antequera  and  the  Jesuits ;— Antequera's  defeat, — his  impri- 
sonment and  trial; — the  escape  of  Mompo  from  prison ; — Castelfuerte  ; — 
Execution  of  Antequera  ; — Tupac-Amaru  ;• — the  revolution  of  1780  in  Peru ; 
— torture  and  horrible  death  of  Tupac- Amaru ; — immense  slaughter  among 
the  Peruvians,  (vide  note  5.  \ — Ubalde, — some  account  of  him, — his  project 
of  a  revolution, — the  manner  of  its  discovery ; — Lechuga,  his  treachery,—- 
conversation  between  him  and  Ubalde  ; — Ubalde'  ecution, — his  address 
to  the  people  of  Cuzco,  Page  30. 

LETTER  III. 

Revolution  in  La  Paz  and  Buenos  Ayres ;— events  at  Bayonne  in  1808,— 
spirit  in  the  colonies, — beginning  of  the  revolution,  25th  March,  1809, — 
history  of  the  revolution,  Page  42. 

LETTER  IV. 

Revolution  of  the  United  Provinces  continued  through  Letters  5,  6,  7,  8,  9, 
to  Page  70. 

LETTER  X. 

Upper  Peru,— its  dimensions,  Intendencies  and  Provinces, — population, — 
how  divided  ; — the  Indians,-their  manners  and  customs,-character,  dress, 
page  77; — number  of  parishes, — their  government, — travelling  doctors, — 
conversation  of  an  Indian, — his  leelings,-honesty,-degradation,     Page  82. 

LETTER  XI. 

Roman  Catholic  Religion,-how  taught,— its  evils, — Bishops,~the  Curas,-their 
salaries,  and  ignorance  ; — the  Sabbath  ; — mass, — religious  tariff, — Indian 
character,-ceremony  of  mass,~dancing,— Balls-Festivities  of  the  Saints,- 
Responsos,— Bulls,-Masquerades,-Musick,— Indian  Dramas, — Fire-works, 
— Funerals,-Tax  upon  them,-Religious  Festivities  of  the  Spaniards, — Al- 
tars and  Triumphal  Arches,-their  richness,-wealth  of  Convents,-Nuns, — 
their  wealth,-Monks,-their  sensuality  ;-riches  of  the  churches  ; — Indians 
prohibited  the  use  of  fire-arms,-their  military  character ; — bad  policy  of 
Spain,  Page  99. 

LETTER  XII. 

Creoles,— two  classes,-education,-wealth ;— Law,-Clergy, — celibacy, — their 
immorality  ,-luxury  of  Creole  nobility,-sumptuous  furniture, — immoderate 
gaming  ;-the  Ladies  of  Peru,-their  dress, -manners  ;-Colleges,-pulpit  elo- 
quence,-Law  Academy, — Medicine,  Page  108. 

LETTER  XIII. 

Mestizos, — their  character ; — the  Cholos ; — their  character, — dress,— Choi* 
Women, — their  dress  -.-ingenuity  of  Cholos; — Mechanics,— miners, — skill 
in  sculpture  and  painting,— anecdote  of  a  specimen  of  sculpture  at  Cuzco,— 
Statue  of  St.  James,— its  beauty  ;—  their  courage, — their  love  of  music  and 
pieasure,-bull-baiting,™ their  patriotism, — Alcaldes — bulls  covered  with 
dollars,  Page  114. 

LETTER  XIV. 

Spaniards, — number, — officers  of  government, — wealthy  marriages, — their 
great  fortunesj-^jbeir  education, — attachment  to  Spain  ;— the  Negroes  :-the 
Mulattoes, — tEeir  bad  character; — remarks  on  the  state  of  the  country  at 
the  commencement  of  the  revolution,  Page  124. 

PART  II.     LETTER  I. 

Atacama; — Port  of  Cobija, — fishery,— mines  ;— Carangas; — silver  mines  of 
AuUagas  ;-clifnate  ;~Lipez,-grazing  ;-silver  table  mine  ;--Cbichas,--gQld 


CONTENTS.  259 

mia  silver  mines ;— Tarija,--its  beautiful  valleys,— soil ;— gold  mines  of  Chi- 
loco  ;  —Cinty,--fine  climate,— grapes  ;~Source  of  the  La  Plata, — its  tribu- 
tary streams,~the  distance  it  is  navigable,— fish ; — Paria,--wool,— cheese  ; 
Porco,~salt  mines  ; — City  of  Potosi,— the  mountain,— its  singular  appear- 
ance,— description  of  the  city, — its  rich  churches,— the  mint,— annual 
amount  of  metal  coined  ; — Bank,— price  of  silver ;— hotels,— tippling  shops, 
—markets, — fruit, — fish, — expenses  of  living, — roads, — climate,— steril- 
ity of  the  soil,— houses,— artificial  lakes,— population  ; — Azogueros,— very 
rich, — richness  of  the  city, — luxuries  of  the  miners, — manufactories; — 
Yngenios ; — Mita ; — Ulloa  ;— Kaachas ;— amalgamation  works, — process 
of  extracting  metals,  page  145 ; — mountain  of  Potosi, — quantity  ol  sil- 
ver produced, — projects  of  draining  the  mines, — varieties  of  metal, — 
its  richness.  Page  154. 

LETTER  II. 

©harcas,— boundaries, — Provinces ; — City  of  Charcas,— page  156, — its  po- 
pulation,— climate, — houses,-churches, — richness,--silver  pulpit,— palaces, 
colleges, — price  of  tuition, — Law  academy, — Courts, — salaries  ol  Judges, 
Oruro,  page  159 ; — convents, — population, — mines, — mauufactovies,-com- 
mercial  situation, — sluggishness  of  the  Spaniards, — robbery  of  its  citizens 
by  the  government,  Page  162. 

LETTER  III. 

Cochabamba, — boundaries, — description  of  the  territory  by  M.  Haenke, — 
situation, — climate, — productions ; — Vale  of  Acque, — mills ; — City  of  Oro- 
pesa,— inhabitants; — Valle  Grande,— its  great  fertility, — farmers,— horses 
and  cattle, — products, — manufacturers, — cloth, — glass  bottles,' — fruits  of 
Cochabamba,  Page  170. 

LETTER  IV. 

La  Paz,— -boundaries, — geographical  situation, — climate ;— Cordilleras  ;— 
Peaks  of  Ilimani  and  Ancoma ; — Cica  Cica, — silver, — salt ;— Pacages,— - 
alabaster ; — Jet  d'eaux, — ruins  of  Palace  of  Incas ;— Omazuegos,— -ancient 
walls, — Indian  cottages ; — Virgin  of  Copacavana, — silver  chandelier,-— 
riches  of  the  virgin ;— quicksilver ; — Lake  Titicaca,  page  175, — its  naviga- 
tion,— fish; — Laracaja,-Zorata, — gold  mines,-mode  of  obtaining  gold,— 
lavaderos,  or  gold  washings,  page  178; — river  Tipuani,— its  rapid  course, 
— gold  on  its  banks,— manner  of  obtaining  it,— expenses,— profits,— miners ; 
town  of  Tipuani,— situation,— beautiful  country,—  prod uctions,— parrots, — 
monkeys  ;— source  of  the  Amazon,— navigationr-Indians,« manufactories, 
— archery ; — Apolobamba,— cocoa  ;— Chulumani,— coca,— its  cultivation,— 
coffee  ;— City  of  La  Paz,  page  186,— ancient  name,— error  of  Humboldt,— 
its  situation,— appearance,— public  square,— buildings,— streets,-  convents, 
—richness,— literary  institutions,— alms  house,— climate  ;— Ilimani,— vine- 
yards,—population,— character  of  the  people,  Page  190. 

LETTER  V. 

•janta  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,— boundaries,— departments;— Misque,— climate,-- 
— soil,— productions  ;— Santa  Cruz ;  river  Mamore,— its  navigation  ;— Moxos 
and  Chiquitos, —boundaries,— villages,— population,— extent, — missions,— 
churches,— their  rich  decorations,— manufactories,— mercantile  factory,— 
climate,— forests,— drugs  and  spices,— Indians  ;-Arica  and  Moquegua,-situ- 
ation,-climate,-ports,-their  harbours ; — City  of  Moquegua,-wines,-sacks, 
— pepper, — mules,-cochineal ; — Valley  of  Tackna,-silver  mines, — mulat- 
toes,  Page  201. 

LETTER  VI. 

Sold  and  silver  mines,-quicksilver,-quantity  of  the  precious  metals  annually 
extracted,— their  influence  upon  national  industry,— climate  of  Upper  Peru, 
—particular  account  of  it,  page  212,— soil  and  productions,  page  215,-- 
mineral  substances,— vegetable  substances,  page  219,— animal  substances, 
page  223  ;-- Llama ; — Alpacha  ; — Guanaco  ;— Vicuna,—  Cochineal,—  fur,— 
plumage,— wheat,— sugar,— cattle,— fruit,— commerce,  page  231,  to  the  endi 


ERRATA. 

Page  71,  line  12,  for  "Caraugas"  read  Carangas. 

.. 78,  line  12,  for  "  Charasain"  and  "  Consonata"  read  C/utrasani,  and 

Consata. 
._—  89,  line  10,  after  the  word  "  third"  read  to  eat  flesh  in  Lent;  and  the 

fourth. 
— —  94,  line  20,  "eleven"  read  sixteen. 

125,  line  18,  for  "  17°"  read  19°. 

—  127,  line  29.  for  "Chayanta"  read  Chichas. 

132,  lino  2,  for  "westward"  read  eastward. 

Same  page,  line  9,  for  "  Bcrmejo"  read  Paraguay,  and  after  "north" 

read  The  licrmejo. 

•  Same  page,  line  10,  after  "  Salta"  read  risesi 

136,  line  28,  for  "  and"  read  to. 

*—  197,  line  28,  for  "600,000"  read  60,000. 


7614    6  » 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


jAN  2  5  1932 

MAY  1  ?  19» 
FE&jL 

APH  2  8  193|, 
IJUY  2  4  T93$ 


|JAN  2  9  193* 
JAN     3  1935 

•  «  *  A93* 

MAY  7     193S 
JAN  2  7  1936 

SWAY  14  193& 

FormL-9-10m-2,'31 


NOV  2  2  1943 

'MAY  4      1955 
?°R  p  0  I3ir        mov  151957 

f«  *    n*  .i)ecA  1957' 


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38. 


00  URL 


NOV  16  19: 

>ft  2  a  1940  A     FEB  27  1970 

APR  131970 


•J*  8 


^L 


rire'r?  1942 


RPR  8     «43 

MAR  3  1 1? 

JUN  2  4  IS 
OCT3 


:  DEC  19 1380.  ■ 


KEC'O  LDURC 


■fcfri«MJW 


LOS  ANUtiLES 
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